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ADOT.F ROSF.X/.WF.TG 



SERIVALOR 

The Valuation of Raw Silk 

By Ai3ULF ROSliXZWEIG 



First Enci.isii Edition, 1!)1T 

Rc-writlen, Revised and ]uilarged 

to include the most recent 

experiences of the Author 



First f^iihlislu-d Si'rially in 
The .liiicricaii Silk jounuil 



Ni:w York 
Clifford & Lawtox, Publishers 






Copyright, 1917 
Clifford & Lazvton 



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MAR 20I3J7 

©CLA 455977 





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INTRODUCTION 

X ])resenting to the silk industry of America 
the only English translation of "Serivalor; 
the Valuation of Raw Silk," revised and re- 
w ritten b\- Adolf Rosenzweig, the author, 
the i)ublishers feel that they are rendering a 
service that will meet with the appreciation 
of silk men and ])articularly of the student of silk. 
ATr. Rosenzweig has an international reputation as an 
authority on silk. He has devoted the greater part 
of his life to research work and experimentation in 
determining the true valuation of raw silk. His 
"Serivalor" is not a theory, but a practical and logical 
system of standardizing raw silks, and it was estab- 
lished by him only after years of work along the most 
practical and scientific lines. 



6 S E R I V A L O R 

A growing interest in Mr. Rosenzweig's work was 
aroused by the publication of the essays awarded 
prizes in the Prize Silk Essay Competition conducted 
by the Silk Association of America in 1914. In some 
of these essaA's Mr. Rosenzweig's work was several 
times quoted from and referred to. Tt was then 
learned that certain firms were so much interested in 
securing "Serivalor" for use in their own organiza- 
tions that they were proposing to have an luiglish 
translation made from the last foreign edition, long 
out of print and copies no longer obtainable. 

Believing, therefore, that Mr. Rosenzweig's work 
should be rendered available in English for the use of 
American silk manufacturers, the publishers arranged 
with him for this revision and in agreeing thereto ]Mr. 
Rosenzweig welcomed the opportunity to include in 
his new writing of "Serivalor" the fresh experience 
he had obtained in the ten years since the publication 
of the last edition. 

"Serivalor" in its new revised English form Wcis 
first published serially in The Atnerican Silk Journal, 
beginning in .that publication July. 191."), and conclud- 
ing in the May, ]91(i, issue. The author's final re- 
vision is here presented in the belief that it will not 
only be a valuable acquisition to every silk man's 
library, but that it will prove of practical value to 
every student interested in the standardization of raw 
silk.' 

Mr. Rosenzweig was writing this revision of his 



SERI VALOR 7 

book at his hoiiie in Milan. Italy, during the first year 
of the European war and was later forced to close his 
Laboratory Serivalor and take up teni])orary residence 
in Switzerland, being a native of Austria. 




Laboratorio Serivalor, jNIilan. 

Editor Ami:ricax Silk Jourxal. 

Dear Sir:— In ausz^'cr to your proposition to pub- 
lish an English translation of my book "Scrivalor," I 
want to say: The book consists of a mathematical and 
an empirical part. Wliile the former is, of course, as 
valid as ever, I feel that the second part can be enlarged 
by the inclusion of the experience I lun'c had since the 
publication of my hook. I am ready therefore to re- 
zcrite the book for your Journal, making use of the 
studies and experiences I hare had during the last ten 
years. In my manuscript to you I shall therefore bring 
thezi'ork up to date and heighten itszcorth considerably. 
Of course, silk inspection cannot be taught by zvriting 
only, ajix more than can weaving or swimming, but the 
book should become an indispensable guide to all of 
those 7cho are interested in the matter. Herewith I 
hand you the prospectus and first chapter of " Scri- 
valor." 

Believe me, dear sir. 

Yours most faithfully, 

Adolf Rosenzwlig. 





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PROSPECTUS 



WH I^ X . after ten years' studies, I was 
called in the year 1U02 to the managing 
of a broad goods manufactory and to the 
buying of raw silk, I tried, first of all, to 
find an expert whose experience would enable me to 
confirm ni\- thecjry. This, however, was not easy. 
There were some who told me of others that knew 
more than themselves, but when I addressed myself to 
them, they again pointed out others of superior experi- 
ence. I proposed the following trial : Between the 
best and the lowest grades of raw silks there is a 
difference in price of about $'2 ; dividing this dift'erence 
into forty degrees of five cents each, it follows that 
there must exist at least forty dift'erent qualities. Hav- 
ing before vou ten bales of the same color, could you 



12 SERIVALOR 

give to each of them a distmct number of quaHty? 
And when, after a week, I should lay before you 
other samples of the same bales, would you call quality 
twenty again what you called it before? Or, how far 
would you dififer? By two, by three, by five degrees? 
All those to whom I addressed myself told me that this 
was an impossible task. 

Of the truth I was informed by an Italian reeler 
who is considered to be one of the best experts in the 
land of silk, who said: '"We are judging raw silk 
according to certain outward characteristics: purity, 
color and the luster of the thread, and a certain elastic 
resistance of the skein against the pressure of the hand. 
By these marks I can recognize the origin of the 
material, and, as I know by long experience which 
provinces are producing good and which low qualities 
of silk, I am able to judge the quality with a certain 
jirobability. But there is no absolute certainty. You 
are asking me whether my 'Extra' quality may be 
safely used through reeds of a certain fineness. How 
should I know ? I am no weaver, and all I can say is 
that I am having it reeled out of the best cocoons, al- 
ways of the same origin, and by well-trained reeling 
girls. And as my clients are satisfied I must suppose 
that I am giving them as good silk as they can expect." 
I asked him whether this way did not lead to occasional 
disappointments. He said it did. Every new crop or 
new crossing of breeds, brings about a new uncertainty. 
It is true that the thread of very bad cocoons will 



S E R I V A L O R 13 

break during the reeling. But this is not sufficient basis 
for sharper distinctions. "For the final certainty we 
must rely on the manufacturer. If he does not com- 
plain, we know that the silk is good." 

It results, therefore, that the valuation of silk 
actually is at this point — that the weaver is relying on 
the reeler's knowledge, while the latter is relying on 
the weaver's judgment. In fact, if a manufacturer was 
offered the same material that he pays a fancy price 
for at the reeler's, at a much lower price by a third 
person, he would not dare to buy it unless it could be 
proved by a trade-mark that it really is the same ma- 
terial. Nay, the reeler himself would not be able to 
recognize his product with certainty if the trade-mark 
should be wanting. Both of them, therefore, are not 
judging the material itself, but are dependent on out- 
ward signs. It is easily to be imagined after this of 
what use inspectors can be who for the most part lack 
the experience of the reeler as well as that of the 
weaver. The impossibility of recognizing the quality 
is also an explanation of the fact that even honest 
reelers are unexpectedly producing bad silk, and con- 
tinuing to produce it until complaints from their clients 
make them start from their unconsciousness. 

If the manufacturer has no certainty about the 
quality of silk, neither has he of the quantity. It is 
of no use to him that the Conditioning Houses are giv- 
ing him the exact measure by which he buys, the weight, 
when thev are not able to give him at the same time the 



14 S E R 1 \' A L O R 

exact relation of this measure to the one he is selhng 
by, the length ; or, in other words, they are not able to 
give him the exact size. If a bale declared to be of 
size I I.OO by the Conditioning House is in reality size 
II..")--) (and it will be shown later on that a similar 
error of four per cent, is (juitc common), the manu- 
facturer will be able to warj) only ninety-six instead 
of 100 warps that the real size 11. 00 would have 
yielded, and when the bale is consumed, he will have 
lost as much as if he had received only ninety-six for 
each mo pounds he has jKiid for. The annual loss to 
I he American silk manufacturers resulting from this 
fact ma}- l)c calculated to l)c at least a million of dollars, 
as will be shown later on. Another consequence of the 
uncertainty of size is that sometimes the pieces of goods 
sent out in execution of an order are eight per cent, 
lower in (jualily tiian the sample piece, the latter having 
been woven of real size 1 l..")0; for instance, the former 
nia\' be !;!.•')(». while the raw material for both was 
declared size 1 1.00 by the Conditioning House. What 
manufacturer has not suffered material and moral 
losses b\' such exjicriences ? 

Of all tlioe circumstances I had been well aware 
in r.iii-^. and 1 was sure of having found a system by 
wliich I could determine the real (piality and the real 
size of silk. In 1!>01 1 published a l)Ook entitled "Scri- 
\alor" and in I'JOT established in Milan a homonymous 
laboratory, exclusively for this task. Invited now to 
publish an l-Jiglish translation of my book, I want to 



S E R I V A L O R 15 

enlarge it by the experience of these later years. In 
the year 15)02 I was only a weaver, though one that 
was making use of scientihc methods. In the mean- 
time I have become a reeler too. Of many facts 
of which I had only been aware of the effects, I have 
been able to recognize the causes, and the new revised 
edition of my book will profit by this, my enlarged 
experience. 

In the first chapter I am going to explain thor- 
oughly the important question of size and to show the 
way by which everybody may repeat the sizing of the 
same bale a hundred times and more without having it 
present, and without costs. One will see by what laws 
the matter is governed, and will recognize that the 
actual error is. in the average, of about four per cent., 
•while the system "Serivalor" reduces it practically to 0. 
Passing to f|uality, it will be shown that the differently 
named defects of silk may be considered as various 
forms of the same original defect, but that neverthe- 
less it is necessary to examine them, with regard to 
their effects on the loom, from seven different stand- 
points. The methods by which the Laboratory Serivalor 
is executing these examinations will be explained, and 
it will l)e shown how silk is classified with regard to 
each of these seven items in such a way that the best 
receive degree I'O, the worst H»'0. while the inler- 
mediate nine degrees are divided into tenths, so that in 
the whole we have a gradation of ninety tenths of de- 
crrees. After this comes the difficult task of uniting 



IG S E R I V A L O R 

the very often contradicting seven single results into 
one final number ; the "Resultant"' expressing the com- 
mercial value of the tested silk: An aim which the 
laboratory has been able to arrive at only after many 
years of trials and labor. It will be shown, further- 
more, how from the "Resultant" there can be derived 
the forty different qualities of which we spoke in the 
beginning, and how by this there can be calculated not 
only whether a bale of silk is "Double Extra," "Extra," 
etc., but also what price it is really worth according to 
the last quotations. Five per cent, of the cost price may 
be gained by this exact cjualification only. A still 
greater advantage will be derived by the manufacturer 
from availing himself of this principle: Every silk 
is good enough for the purpose corresponding to its 
qualities. But even less good silk will give as much 
satisfaction as the best, if employed in the right way, 
that is to say, for what it is fit. 

The testing being made from seven different points 
of view, and the silk being in this way, as it were, 
photographed, the buyer is able to choose the kind that 
possesses the qualities necessary for his purpose, with- 
out being obliged to pay for those that are useless to 
him. 

It will be demonstrated at the same time why the 
methods of testing silk heretofore used cannot possibly 
yield any satisfactory result, and that progress is im- 
possible under those methods. It will be shown how 
deceptive the so called "Elasticity" (in reality, due- 



S E R I V A L O R IT 

tility) is, and how little value is to be given to tensile 
strength. Finally, there will be given some hints which, 
though not belonging to the main subject, of the book, 
may still be useful. For instance — 

On the increasing of size through the shortening 
of the thread by throwing. 

Regarding the causes of the "lousiness" of silk as 
manifested after dyeing. 

About em])loying the various qualities of silk ac- 
cording to the fineness of the reeds. 

The right calculation of the cost-price of tissues, 
and how by this it appears that many silks that cost less 
by the pound are in reality more expensive than others 
costing more. 

DifYering from most books about silk that some- 
times repeat wrong indications from older handbooks 
without painstaking and expert analyses of them, this 
book is founded exclusively on my own experiences 
together with a thorough knowledge of the respective 
silk literature. 

Conscious of the fact of writing for busy readers, 
I shall try to be as brief as is consistent with my subject, 
and considerate also in treating matters for the com- 
prehension of which some knowledge of mathematics 
is necessary. Where this is lacking, however, even 
long explanations would be of no avail. Such parts 
are followed by "practical hints" for the use of the 
merely practical man. 




ClIAPTKR I 

THE SIZE (Lr: Titre) 

WE TOLD in the introduction how 
imi)ortant it is for the manufacturer to 
know the exact proportion between weight 
— tlie measure by which he buys — and 
length — the measure by which he sells. This i)ropor- 
tion is expressed in the size. 

It is established by international conventions that 
size is to be considered : "The weight of J50 meters 
(about 500 yards) expressed in half decigrams." 
This formula sounds rather awkward, and it contains, 
moreover, the germ of an error that influences the 
logical consequences of sizing, as will be demon- 
strated later on. Expressed in a clearer way, the 
formula is: "Size is the weight in grams of 9,000 
meters (about 10.000 yards)." 

The object of sizing is, therefore, to indicate with 



S E R I V A L O R - 19 

an exactitude within the narrowest hmits of variation 
the number of meters, or yards, contained in the bale 
tested. But as such a bale contains, considering only 
the usual sizes of 8/10 to 20/28, from ;3;3 to TOO mil- 
lions of meters, it is obviously impossible to measure 
them. On the other hand, the weight of the thread 
changes not only with every 4.")0 meters, as might be 
supposed from the official standard measure, Init with 
the shortest length, as the following ex])eriment in- 
dicates : Take a thread of about a yard's length, divide 
it with greatest care into two exact halves, and weigh 
these on a common chenn'cal balance of 1/10 mili- 
gram's sensibility. The tzco liolrcs zcill sliozc different 
zcei(jhfs. But there are chemical scales of 10 to lO'J 
times finer sensibility, by the aid of which one can 
repeat the experiment with pieces 10 to 100 times 
smaller, and the weight of each jjiece will always dilter. 
By this it ai)pears evident that the length of a 
great quantity of thread cannot be fixed by mere 
measuring and weighing, but only l)y a combination 
of these with mathematical methods knt)wn as the 
Theory of Probabilities. That our ancestors who 
created the -rules of sizing were not ac(iuainted with 
this theory is not their fault. But that they did not 
consult a mathematician in this difiicull niatler, they 
may justly be reproached for by the manufacturer. 
For it is he, and not the reeler, the throwster, ()r the 
tradesman, who has to suffer the immense loss conse- 
Cjuent on this uncertainty. 



20 SERIVALOR 

It can hardly be the object of this book to teach 
the Theory of Probabihties but I shall try to give all 
the hints useful for the comprehension of the matter 
in hand. The studying of these elementary rules, and 
especially of the fourth, regarding "Constancy,"' is in- 
dispensable to anyone wishing to solve the problem of 
sizing. 

ELEMENTARY RULES FOR CALCULATING 
PROBABILITIES. 

Throwing uj) a coin ten times and finding that 
seven times it fell head and thrice tail. I evidently 
would commit a gross error if therefrom I should 
conclude that the coin will always show more than 
twice as many heads as tails. This error would be 
ihe consequence of an inadequate number of trials. 

First rule: Tests, whose results lay in the realm 
of Probabilities, must be repeated many times. 

Repeating the experiment 1,000 times, I get 498 
heads and ."302 tails. Does this prove that the coin 
has a tendency to fall on the tail side? No! 

Of this follows the 

Second rule: Attempts at probabilities do not 
yield as clear figures as arithmetic calculations. 

Comparing the sums of each ten trials, I find that 
now the heads and now the tails are prevalent. From 
this I conclude that the coin will fall as many times 



SERIVALOR 21 

on the tail as on the head side, and this result is quite 
as exact as that of any arithmetic calculation. 

Third rule: The calculation of probabilities give's 
as reliable result as any arithmetic ])rocedure, if these 
results are logically worked out. 

Fourth rule: The results of probabilities are to 
be considered as exact, if on essays repeated many 
times those results differ only within narrow limits 
from their average, that is to say, if they arc constant. 
The interval between the extremes indicates the num- 
ber of trials to be made. 

Till now we have worked with the object having 
two sides and arrived at the true after about 100 trials. 
Proceeding however to a die, which has six sides, we 
tind that 100 essays yield no constant results. ()f this 
follows the 

Fifth rule: The number of essays necessary for 
tindiiig that which is true increases with tlie number 
of possibilities. 

The third rule proves that a sizing sufticiently ex- 
act for practical purposes is possible ; the fourth that 
the methods hitherto used are inadequate; the first 
indicates the reason thereof. The fifth shows that 
regular and irregular threads, when treated with the 
same methods, will give results of dift'erent exactness. 

Let us now return to practical experience, and let 
us suj)i)ose that the owner of a bale of silk accompanies 



22 S E R I V A L O R 

this bale to the Conditioning House, demanding that 
the testing should be done in his presence so that he 
may assure himself of its exactness. The director ex- 
plains to him the difficulty of the task ; the silk thread 
is considerably lengthened by tension and nevertheless 
it is necessary to stretch it, in order to measure it. It 
must be dried out to 0° of humidity and weighed on a 
very sensitive balance ; this balance must be regulated 
daily, as it might have changed during the night, etc. 
He then, draws one skein out of the bale and with 
the greatest possil)le care measures olt one meter. 
After having dried, weighed and calculated it, he de- 
clares the bale to be of size 0. 

The owner of the bale is surprised. He has 
bought it as 13/15. and he possesses experience enough 
to judge by the mere touch of the skeins that it can 
hardly be of size 9. But the testing has been done in 
his presence with care and accuracy, and he does not 
know yet where the error lies. He takes away his bale, 
and returns the next day with another one and makes 
the same request. Again the procedure is repeated 
with the same conscientious care ; result : The bale 
is declared to be of size 18. 

The owner now confesses that he has twice 
brought the same bale for testing and does not con- 
ceal his discontent. The director replies coolly that 
he had performed the testing according to his pre- 
scriptions and with the greatest possible exactness, and 
could do no more. 



S E R I \^ A L O R 33 

The reader has long before recognized where the 
cause of the error hes ; in the insufficiency of the 
length measured. x\nd how has it become evident that 
the results are wrong? By the vast difference beti^'een 
them. But is he persuaded that there is no difiference 
between the results of the actual official sizing, that is 
to say, that they are "constant f Of course, the Con- 
ditioning Houses are not measuring one meter out of 
one skein, but 20 to 30 times 450 meters out of 5 to 10 
skeins (the respective rules are different in different 
places) that is, fron: !J to l-'Vo kilometers. Why just 
this quantity? Why not 1 km. or 2, or 5. or 20? Why 
just 5 or 10 skeins, why not 2 or 15? It is generally 
supposed that, in fixing the rules by which the Con- 
ditioning Houses arc obliged to work, a quantity was 
adopted that could guarantee the constancy of the re- 
sults. P)Ut this is not the case. 

In the German and French editions of my book, 
cf 1904, I proved the unreliability of the actual meth- 
ods of sizing. On the occasion of the International 
Silk Congress of Torino, 1911, the Milan and Como 
Conditioning Houses published a pamphlet: "Qitcl- 
ques rciiiarqiics . . . siir les )noyeiuies ct Ics ccarts de 
titrc dcs (jreges" in which they show by the trials made 
on more than 30 bales, how inconstant their indica- 
tions are, not only in regard to size, but also in regard 
to the "ecart," that is. the distance between the lightest 
and the heaviest sizing skein, which distance generally, 
though wrongly, is considered as a measure of the 



24 S E R I V A L O R 

regularity of the thread. Not only the seven Japan 
bales tested but also the 27 Italian bales, among which 
there were 13 Extra, showed vast differences, for 
the same bale, in regard to the size, the extremes, and 
the reeling. Table 7 of the pamphlet, for instance, 
gives the results of an Italian Extra bale, with fluctua- 
tions in averages of sizes between 13.70, 13.73, 13.83 
on one hand, and 14.76, 15.00, and 14.00 on the other. 
The extremes vary between the minima of 11^^, 12, 
12><, and 13, and the maxima of 15>4, 16, 16>4, 17, 
and 173/2. The breaks in the reeling vary between 
and 5, etc. Other bales show greater variations still. 
On table 25, for instance, (Italian ler ordre) the breaks 
vary between 6 and 20! On table 28 (Japan 13/15, 
13^) the averages of size oscillate between 12.9 and 
14.4 (that is, nearly 12 per cent.) the minima between 
{> and 11 3/^, the maxima between 143^4 and 19, so that 
a casual combination of 113^ — 143^2 (ecart 3 den.) on 
the one hand, and 9 — 19 {ecart 10 den.) on the other 
might have been possible. 

The pamphlet arrives at this conclusion : 

"1. La plus grandc partic, on Jiicinc la prcsque 
totalite, des soies qii'on acccpte eonune rcguUcrcs, ne 
Ic sont effectivemcnt pas. 

"2. L'essai, comme il est pratique aujourd'hui, 
sur un trcs petit noinbre dc fiottes, est un veritable 
jeu de hasard. 



S E R I V A L O R 25 

En poisant, que dc tcllcs conclusions sont la 
resiiltante d'ltn grand nombre d'essais serieiis et in- 
contestables, nous nous demafidons, s'il est juste, et 
mcnie honncte, de contimier avec ces systemes." 

In English : 

"1. The greatest part, nay, it might be said, 
nearly all the bales of silk that are accepted as regular, 
are not so in fact. 

''2. The testing, as it is done nowadays, on a very 
small number of skeins, is a mere play of hazard. 

"Considering that these conclusions are the result 
of a great number of elaborate and indisputable tests, 
we must ask ourselves, zchetJier it is right, or even 
honest, to go on with these methods.'' 

How can this intolerable state of things be rem- 
edied? In order to arrive at an answer to this ques- 
tion, let us make the following experiment : We divide 
5 kilos of Tsatlee (Gold-Kilin) into skeins of 450 
meters and receive 4236 skeins. The real size of the 
5 kilos is therefore 23.(5]. Weighing every single 
skein, we find all sizes 

from IV/2 to 42. 

Weighing two and two together, we find all sizes 

from ]55^ to 351^. 



26 S E R T V A L O R 

We see that the error has diminished on both sides, 
so we are on the right way. 

Taking 4 skeins (ISOO meters) together, we find all sizes from IS to SlVz 

8 '• (3C00 •' ) " " " 19 " 29 

" 16 '• (7200 " ) " " " 20!^ " 27 

" 32 " (14400 " ) " " " 21 " 26 

We are now arrived at about the number of skeins, 
by which the Conditioning Houses estabhsh the size, 
and we see that the real size 23.61 might, according 
to the casual grouping of skeins, be declared as any- 
thing between 21 and 26. Nay, the difference might 
be greater still, as in the Conditioning Houses the 
sizing skeins are taken from a small number of original 
skeins. 

The averages of 04 skeins ( 2S.S kilometers) vary between 22 and 25 

12S •* ( r,7.6 " ) '• " 22 '/2 " 24'^ 

256 " (115.2 " ) " " 23 " 2i'A 

512 " (230.4 " ) " " 23J4 " 24 

The following table unites the results obtained : 

Greatest difference 
Sizes from real size in 

obtained. % of the latter. 

from 13, '72 to 42 78 

" 1514 " 35 51 

" 18 " 311^ 34 

" 19 " 29 23 

" 20;4 " 27^ 16 

" 21 '• 2C> 10 

" 22 •• 2.5 7 

" 22^ " 24H 4K 

" 23 " 24% 3 

" 23J4 " 24 2 



Length measured 




kilometers. 


Skeini 


0.45 


1 


0.90 


2 


1.8 


4 


3.6 


8 


7.2 


16 


14.4 


32 


28.8 


64 


57.6 


128 


115.2 


256 


230.4 


512 



S E R I \^\ L O R 27 

Comparing the first with the last cohimn, we see 
that the difference from the actual or true is dimin- 
ished by about a third by doubling the length measured. 

Of this there follows that in the present case it 
would he necessary to measure 460 kilometers (lU'^l 
skeins) to hring down the difference to 1.3 per cent., 
and !)"vO kilometers (2048 skeins) in order to he siu'e 
that it docs not surpass 1 per cent. 

While, then, taking two skeins instead of one. we 
have got nearer to the actual by 27 per cent., hnally, 
by taking 2048 instead oi 1021, we have approached 
it only by 0.3 per cent. — an effect that is out of i)ro- 
portion to the work it requires. We arrive, therefore, 
at a certain point, where tlie increasing of skeins ceases 
to be useful, and we call this the rational limit of sizing. 

It remains now to fix this "rational limit." in 
order to find out the nimiber of skeins, viz., the lenglh 
to be measured, necessary for exact sizing. The fol- 
lowing table serves for this jnirpose, and is to be used 
in this way : 

Drawing 30 skeins (of 450 meters) from a bale 
and choosing the two heaviest and the two lightest 
ones, we divide the sum of the former by that of the 
latter; those being, for illustration. 30 :2r) = l.-2. Look- 
ing for the {|Uotient on the table, we find that .■>() 
skeins are sufficient only when the (luotient is 1.1!). or 
less. We therefore increase the numl)er of skeins to 
GO, com])aring now, however, the four heaviest with 
the four lightest ones ; the proportion being f . i. 58 :4S, 



28 ^ S E R I V A L O R 

the quotient is 1.21, and as the table indicates 1.24, 
we may be sure to have approached the true within -|- 
or — 2 per cent. 

TABLE FOR SIZING WITH AN EXACTNESS OF 

-f- or — 2 per cent. 

Number of skeins The result answers 



Number 


Being 


to be tak 


en f 


rom 


the 


purpose, if 


of 


kilo- 


each of 


the 


ex- 


the 


quotient is 


skeins. 


meters. 


treme sizes. 




not 


superior to: 


30 


13.5 


2 








1.19 


60 


27.0 . 


4 








1.24 


90 


40.5 


6 








1.28 


120 


54.0 


8 








1.33 


150 


67.5 


10 








1.37 


ISO 


81.0 


12 








1.42 


200 


90.0 


14 








1.47 



By practical experience it has been ascertained, 
however, that in nearly all cases 200 skeins (90 km.) 
are wanted and that it is hardly necessary to make 
the preliminary trials. On the other hand there are 
bales for which even !)0 km. do not suffice, but these 
are of lower quality and therefore rarely pay the in- 
creased expenses of sizing. In each case we can find 
out by the calculation that will be shown later on, how 
far the true size may dififer from the established. 

jM'eanwhile we are i?oing to make another experi- 
ment. It would be desirable, no doubt, to repeat the 
sizing of the same bale, let us say, of Japan V/z, 13/15, 
a hundred times and more, and learn from the results 
obtained. It is true that even a hundred sizings do 



S E R I V A L O R 29 

not give the absolute size of the whole bale, but the 
average of so many trials would be near enough to 
the actual for our purpose. But the difficulties of re- 
peating the sizing of the same bale a hundred times 
are evident. The thing would be much easier if the 
whole bale consisted of skeins of 450 meters ; then 
we should not have to measure but only to weigh. 
And the task would become much easier still if to 
each skein were attached a label indicating its weight ; 
then we need neither measure nor weigh but only read. 
And pursuing the idea, we find that in this case zee 
should not zvanf the skeins themselves but only the 
labels. 

Let us imagine, then, a bag filled, instead of with 
silk, with labels bearing the sizes contained in a picul 
of Japan 1^, 13/15, varying, as we know, on one 
single sizing bulletin from about 11 to 18. (A second 
bulletin of the same bale may show sizes 10-17 or 
12-20.) The bag would contain about 86,000 of such 
labels, among which, however, the single sizes would 
not be represented in equal numbers, but, as we can 
see from any sizing bulletin, from the finest to the 
middle size in increasing and from the middle to the 
heaviest in decreasing number. Out of this bag we 
should then draw 30 labels and calculate their aver- 
age, by which we should have performed one sizing. 
But as we know that the bag does not contain the 
single sizes in equal numbers, we must not leave out- 
side the drawn labels lest we should alter the pro- 



30 SERI VALOR 

])ortion of the single sizes to each other. This would 
be allowed only if we contended to exhaust the bag 
comi^letely, that is to say to perform about 2. 800 sizings 
of 30 labels each. Wishing, however, to do only 
100-200 sizings in order to see how one and the same 
bale is represented by each of them, we must be care- 
ful to put back each drawn label so that we might not 
alter the character of its contents. 

Let us now go a step further. Being obliged any- 
how to put back any drawn label, the bag need not 
even contain 2S00 x 30 labels, but z^'c shall arrive at 
the same result if it contains only one single series of 
30 labels, as this remains unchanged if we put back 
every drawn label and mix them thoroughly. 

In comparison with the sizing of real silk skeins 
this experiment has not only the advantage of sim- 
plicity, cheapness, and qnickness, but is also true, as 
we are in knowledge of the true size of the imaginary 
bale, which can never be the case with a real bale. 

In order then to have the reflex of reality, we 
need only to write the 30 figures of some sizing bulle- 
tin on handy labels, put these into a little bag and 
begin with the drawing. The bulletin No. 5136. of 
April 15. 1-915. of the Stagionatura Anonima, Milan, 
reproduced here, might serve as an example : 



S E R I \^\ L O R 



31 



Report on test made 


on samples of 10 skeins in raw 


R C 24 


on weight of Kilo 0.705 






SIZE. 






IVA 




133^ 


15^ 






12 




14 


16 






12H 




14 


16 






12^ 




14 


16^ 






121^ 




14 


16^ 






13 




141^ 


17 






13 




uy2 


17 






]3 




uy. 


17^ 






li'A 




15 


171^ 






^VA 1 


15 K- 


1714 





We see that this bulletin contains: 

Sizes n><, 12, 12K'. 13, 13^, 14, 14^^, 

11 3 3 3 4 3 

15, 15^>, 16, 16J/, 17, 17^. 

12 2 2 2 3 

Sum: 4375. average 4375:30=14.59. 

(Any other sizing bulletin that shows a similar average 
(about 14.55 to 14. (Jo) with a similar ecart (G den.) would 
serve as well.) 

The experiment, viz., the drawing of oO numbers 
should be repeated at least 100 times, writing down 
each drawn number, but calculating the average not 
of each 30 but of each 10 numbers, and drawing to- 
gether 3 averages of 10 to one of 30. This procedure 



32 SERI VALOR 

is more practical, as later on we shall want the aver- 
ages of 20 X 10 numbers, and so those of 10 will come 
handy. 

According to the Theory of Probabilities among 
100 sizings (of 30 numbers each) there will appear: 
averages up to about — 

14.0, 14.1, l-i.2, 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 

3 4 10 10 10 13 

14.6, 14.7, 14.8, 14.9, 15.0, 15.1. 

10 3 7 7 13 10 

Of this follows : 

1. Of 100 sizings of a bale of real size 14. G to 
14.7, 50 will ])c such that the bale may be delivered as 
13/15. according to "usage." 

2. If therefore I have sizings made on 100 bales 
14/15, or 14/lG, I may be sure that 50 of them may 
be delivered as 13/15. Repeating the sizing of the 
remaining 50 bales, half of these will again appear as 
13/15, and I have only 25 bales left, with which I go 
on in the same wa)^ until all the 100 bales have passed 
as 13/15. How many sizings were necessary for this 
purpose? 100-1-50 + 25 + 12 or 13 + 6 + 3 + 1 
or 2 = 200, that is to say two sizings per bale instead 
of one. 

3. A more practical and more direct way is to 



S E R I V A L O R 33 

luive each bale sized twice at once. Thus we receive 
two bulletins for each bale, of which nearly always 
one will be of 13/15. This tzvofold sizing is tlie gen- 
eral useage in nearly all silk-trading places. 

It is therefore a mathematical fact that by the two- 
fold sizing of each bale the real size appears altered by 
about 4 per cent. How large the loss accruing from 
this fact is, especially for buyers of Japan 13/15. was 
shown to me by the sizing of 112 piculs that the Labo- 
ratory Serivalor had to effect some time ago. These 
112 piculs of Japan V/y had all passed as 13/15. Ac- 
cording to the sizing of the Laboratory, on a basis of 
90 kilometers (200 skeins), 58 of them appeared as 
11/15, and the average of the li'hole 112 z^'as 14.58, 
therefore more than 4 per cent, too heavy. I am sure 
that the controlling of each great lot of Japan iy2. 
13/15, would give the same and worse results. The 
reason lies in this : Tn each country the great bulk 
of cocoons consists of a thread (baz'a) of a certain 
size which then determines the size of the silk-thread 
reeled therefrom. In Jajjan the size of the bava of the 
main part of the crop evidently is near to 2.45, and 
therefore to the reeler 

4 cocoons will yield 4 x 2.45 = 9.80, or 9/11 

5 -) X 2.45= 1 :.'.:.'-) " 11/13 — 12/1.3 

6 " " " 6 X 2.45 = 14.70 " 14/15 — 14/16, 

but it is difificult for him to arrive at size 14, for which 
he would be obliged to employ : 



34 S E R I V A L O R 

or 5 cocoons of 2.80 ^ 1 1.0 
or G cocoons of 2.35 = 1-1.1, 

which kinds evidently are comparatively rare in Japan. 

In Italy a bava of 2.8 den. is quite common, and 
therefore in Italian silk the size 13/15 will generally 
be right. On the other hand, a great part of Italian 
11/13 are in reality 12/13 to 12/14, as a bava of 2.4, 
of which 5 cocoons would yield size 12. is rather rare, 
and the recler must be content to find 2.5 to 2.G yielding 
sizes 12.5 to 13. (It would be easy for the reeler to 
find 3.0, of which 1 would yield size 12; but the reel- 
ing of 4 cocoons is very ditticult, as we shall see later 
on, and the thread contains very many fine ends.) 

It might be observed here that though every con- 
scientious reeler makes frequent size tests such tests 
are of no great avail, as the variations in drying the 
wet thread bring results more or less incomplete, ac- 
cording to the humidity of the surrounding air, and 
the reeler, of course, does not use a conditioning appa- 
ratus. This leaves the reeler uncertain of about 4 
per cent, of the size. 

How great is the loss to the American manufac- 
turer resulting from these circumstances? The Ameri- 
can consumption of silk amounts on an average to 100 
millions of dollars a year. We have seen that the 
twofold sizing of each bale changes the true size as 
much as 4 per cent. Supposing that this applied to 
only one out of four cases, which is certainly below 



S E R 1 \' A L O R 35 

the mark, yet even then we estimate a loss of a milHon 
of dollars yearly. (This loss riinmng through im- 
perceptible holes accounts for lucniy a)i uiuiccountable 
irtiitus ill the manufacturer's annual balance.) 

How can this loss be avoided ? Simply by exact 
■^izin.i;-. Taking- as a basis, instead of the nsual 1.'>.5 
kilometers '(;5U skeins). !)() kilometers (200 skeins) as 
the Lal)oratory Serivalor is doing, the model bale 
IM-evionsly utilized for our experiments, will yield 
in each 100 sizings : 

Siziiigs 7 2n .-36 17 20 



Sizes 14.:i.")-14.4l> iii)to14.o 14.6 14.7 14. S 

(These results may be controlled by any reader. 
We had previously said that the averages of each 10 
iuiml)ers should be noted. Writing down these aver- 
ages on new labels, drawing them in the manner previ- 
ously explained and taking- the averages of each 20, 
these represent the averages of 20 X 10 = 200 sizing 
skeins = DO kilometers, viz.. the quantity measured by 
theL. S.) 

We see now how the possible error has dwindled. 
( )nly : of 100 bales 1 J/l-"), and none of 14/16 could be 
delivered as llVl'"), and this small possible gain will 
induce nobody to have each bale tested twice. But also 
the deviation of 1^^ per cent. (1 1.35-14.40 instead of 
14.59) will occur as often above as below the mark, 
and therefore be practically reduced to nothing. 



36 SERI VALOR 

How great the error is in each single case may be 
calculated mathematically out of each series of 10 siz- 
ings of 9 km. (^20 skeins) as done for each single 
bale by the Serivalor system. The formula, which un- 
fortunately cannot be explained at length here, is the 
following: a being the average of n sizings, d the dif- 
ference of each sizing from the average ; then we have: 



M 



100 /^ d 4- d ' -f d ' i-d" 

•2 3 n 



R = 



The resultant : R expresses the mean division in 
per cent, of the size. 

Here are some actual exam])les : 

Italian 1st order, 9/11. 10.0, 10.2, 10.2. 10.2. 10.2, 10.3, 
10.5. lO.G, 11.2. .\verage 10.4. Mean deviation 0.33 per cent. 

Italian 2d order, 11/13. 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.4, 11.6, 11.8, 
12.2, 12.3, 12.6, 12.8. AveraL;e 11.8. Mean deviation 1.75 
per cent. 

Italian Classical 14/16. 14.2, 14.4, 14.6, 14.7, 14.S, 1,5.0, 
15.2, 15.3, 15.4. Average 14.8. Mean deviation 0.30 per cent. 

Italian Extra 27/29. 26.5, 27.3, 27.5, 27.5, 27.5, 27.8, 28.0, 
28.2, 28.7. Average 27.7. Mean deviation 0.78 per cent. 

Japan Double Extra 12/13. 12.0, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.4, 12.6, 
12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.0. Average 12.5. Mean deviation 1.3 per 
cent. 



SERIVALOR 37 

Japan V/., so called 13/15. 13/7, 13/8, 14.0, 14.1, 14.2, 
14.3, 14..5, 14.8, 15.6, 16.0. Average 14.5. Mean deviation 1.7 
per cent. 

Japan V/>-2, so called 13/16. 13.7, 14.0, 14.3. 14.7, 14.7, 
14. S, 15.5, 15.6, 17.0. Average 14.9. Mean deviation 2.0 per 
cent. 

Some of these examples show that for very ir- 
regular threads even sizing on a hasis of 90 km. is 
liardly sufificient. In such cases, in which the mean 
deviation exceeds 1 per cent., the sizing should be 
made on 180 km. 

In any case the result can be exact only if the 
sizing skeins are taken from a sufficiently great num- 
ber of original skeins. Of this number which, of 
course, has also its rational limit, we want to say : 

A l)ale of silk is j^roduced either by many reeling 
girls in a short time, or by a few of them in a longer 
time. In the first case the number of skeins drawn 
ought to be equal to the number of reeling girls, in 
the second to their number multiplied by the number 
of weeks they had worked at the bale — (supposing 
that in the worst case their way of working had 
changed in the course of a week). 

For according to the laws of probabilities the re- 
sult of any new test will be equal to those of the former 
ones, if the skeins drawn represent the entire char- 
acter of the bale. yVnd as the latter is the product 
of a certain number of individuals, it would be de- 



38 S E R I V A L O R 

sirable that a skein should be drawn for every indi- 
vidual. It is necessary therefore to draw the skeins 
from all parts and layers of the bale. Of course we 
do not know which is which ; but as they are indis- 
criminately mixed, by drawing them from all parts, we 
may be sure to get a true characteristic of the whole. 
Let us now consider opposite suppositions : 

a. The bale (100 kilos) was reeled by one single 
girl. 

With a production of 500 grams daily, the work 
should rccjuire oO weeks. Therefore oO skeins would 
be drawn. 

b. The bale was finished in a week. Then 30 
girls have worked at it. and we have again to draw 30 
skeins. 

For these reasons I made the tests first on 30 
skeins, and having arrived at satisfactor)- results, tried 
to diminish their number to 20. This number has 
proved sufficient as far as Italian silks are concerned, 
but not quite as reliable for Asiatic silks. 

The Laljoratory Serivalor therefore i)roceeds as 
follows : 

Of eacli bale (100 kilos) Italian, 20 skeins are drawn. 
" Picul (GO " ) Japan, 15 

(^^^e have said that of Italian silks the skeins 
must be taken from all parts and layers of the bale. 



SERI VALOR 



39 



With Japans each skein must be drawn from a dif- 
ferent parcel. 

In testing Japan silks, two piculs arc always 
coupled together and the testing is done on 
2 X 15 = 30 skeins. These piculs must be considered 
as a unit and employed together on the loom. 

Of each of the 20 (respectively 30) skeins 4,500 
meters (^10 sizing skeins) arc measured off and the 
size established according to their weight at TO per 
cent, humidity of the air. The silk measured off this 
way then serves for all the other tests to be mentioned 
later. (Anyone who may doubt of the measuring being 
really done may demand that an additional 90 kilo- 
meters should be measured off and sent to him.) 





Chapter II 

SOME REMARKS ABOUT QUALITY IN 
GENERA L 

IF A dozen experts were called, let us say, by a 
judge in a lawsuit, to answer the question, "What 
does the quality of silk consist in?" they would in 
all probability give twelve complicated answers rich 
with technical expressions, each absolutely ditierent 
from the other. Dark hints about "a certain touch," 
"a certain luster," etc.. would only serve to hide the 
want of a clear definition, and after having heard the 
twelve, the judge would be as wise as before. 

In reality, the answer is very simple : The best 
silk is the one that alloics the highest speed on the loom. 
On the loom, and not in winding, warping, or throwing, 
for these procedures are not so important as weaving. 
If a bale of silk proved bad in winding, warping or 



S E R I V A L O R 41 

throwing, but allowed speedy weaving, it is of excellent 
quality; just as it is of bad quality if the weaving is 
slow, though the winding, warping or throwing had 
been excellent. 

This, of course, appears evident, as a break in 
winding and throwing stops one thread only, in warp- 
ing 300, in weaving up to 15,000. In fact, the wages 
and general ex])enses are in the proportion of 1 for 
winding to 'ijA for warping, and 10 for weaving. The 
speed in weaving is worth ten times that in winding, 
and four times that in warping. 

But there are many people who consider the wind- 
ing as a touchstone for quality in general. To those 
I want to say that this supposition is quite wrong, as 
will be demonstrated in its place. 

It is an erroneous supposition as well, that the 
better silk will yield a better, a more durable tissue. 
The durability of the tissue has nothing to do with 
the quality of the silk it is made of, and "Gold-Kilin," 
for instance, will yield a stufT that will wear at least 
as well as one made of Italian Extra that costs about 
60 per cent, more, the only difference lying /;/ the ci'cn- 
ness of the surface. 

But now there arises a new question. ( )n what 
depends the possibility of speedy weaving? 

The answer is: On the "iinifoniiity" of the silk 
thread. 

The silk thread ought to be '"uniform." The ideal 
claim for it is that it should have the same diameter 



42 S E R I V A L O R 

throughout its whole length. Its "quality" is pro- 
portional to its "uniformity," that is to say, the more 
uniform it is, the better is its quality, and vice versa; 
and all its ditTerently named defects are only various 
forms of one and the same defect : want of uiiifurmity. 

But according to the shape in which this defect 
appears, its influence is ditYerent on the speed of pro- 
duction, and therefore it will be necessary to treat of 
these various shapes in separate chapters. 

In this instance I want only to give some hints 
about the way in which the reeler must try to arrive at 
the greatest possible uniformity. 

The silk thread cannot be reeled out of one co- 
coon, but of four at least, better from five of them 
united. Here follows the application of the first rule: 
Tiic iiiiiiiher of cocoons nuist be the same during the 
-u'hole time of the reeling. 

Within a lot of the same race the diameter of the 
cocoon's thread is about proportional to the size of 
the cocoons. Hence the second rule : The cocoons 
reeled together ought to be of the same race and of 
about the same sice. 

The diameter of the cocoon thread is very variable, 
but as a rule it is much thinner at the beginning and at 
the end than in the middle of each cocoon. This fur- 
nishes the 

3rd Rule: llie cocoon threads must complete each 
other in sucli a manner that about Jialf of their nuin- 



S E R I V A L O R 43 

bcr arc at the beginning ur at the end, u'hile the other 
half are at the middle. 

If several threads are to be united to one of uni- 
form diameter, it is indispensable that each of them 
should hrst form a strais,dit line. On the cocoon, how- 
ever, the thread is laid in circles and looi)s like the fig- 
ure <S. Hence the 

4th Rule: The cocoon thread must be stretched to 
a straight line. 

Owing to its being enveloi)ed in a sort of gum 
(sericin ) the cocoon thread ])resents a strong resistance 
to stretching. Hence the 

oth Rule: The sericin must be sufficiently soaked. 
But when thoroughly soaked the thread has a tendency 
to fall off the cocoons by loops and clusters, which are 
running into the reeled thread, without previously 
being stretched. Hence the 

(>th Rule: 71ie serici)i inust not be soaked too 
much. 

The reeler. however, can act according to rules 
5 and (J only when every lot of cocoons is assorted in 
such a manner that only cocoons of the same texture 
are emploxed together. I'or the less tightly the worm 
has crossed the thread, tlie deeper the hot water pene- 
trates, and the more soaked will be the sericin. The 
chief differences of texture arc called "Reali," "Rea- 



44 S E R I V A L O R 

lini," "Scarti," "Bombaggiati," but there are still num- 
erous subdivisions. 

The 7th rule is, therefore: The cocoons must be 
assorted according to their texture. 

The assorting, however, is not sufficient for its 
purpose if the speed of the reeling is not regulated 
according to the (juality of cocoons. 

llie right speed of reeling, then, forms the Sth rule. 

The well stretched thread laying itself alongside 
its neighbors, does not unite with them into a round 
cord, but forms only a flat ribbon. Hence the 

9th Rule: The stretched cocoon thread must be 
united by a concentric pressure. 

The now completed thread is wet and much in- 
clined to sticking, adhering with its neighbors, espe- 
cially where they rest on the six logs of the reel. 

The 10th rule therefore is : The sticking together 
of the threads must be avoided. 

To sum up what has been said before: The more 
thoroughly a rceler acts according to the ten rules 
established above, the better zinll be the quality of silk 
produced. 



We are now going to consider the consequences 
of each single form of the original defect in silk, and 
to show that they are not to be recognized by the meth- 
ods used hitherto ; but that there are other methods 
that will vield reliable results. 




Ciiapti:r Til 
R E G U L A R 1 1" Y 

UXDKR this title we are going to treat that want of 
tmiforniity which becomes a])parent in the varia- 
tions of size. -\s we said in tiie preceding chapter, 
these variations are the consequence partly of the 
irregularity of the cocoon thread, and partly of its being 
reeled without observation of the first and second of 
the rules established there. 

This irregularity is considerable, and more so with 
the thread of larger cocoons than with that of smaller 
ones. The difterence within one cocoon niav be ex- 
pressed by the proportion 1 :-'! ; that is to say, cocoons 
of the average size of 2 :S den., for instance, contain 
all sizes from lA to 1.'3 den., the fmest occurring at 
the end of the thread (whose length is about 500 
meters) the thickest in the middle, the middle sizes 
at the beginning. 

From the proportion 1 :'■) and from the mathe- 
matical law of "Combination" it follows that tlic unit- 



46 S E R I \^\ L O R 

ing of five or six cocoons must yield a thread whose 
variations of size cannot be of smaller proportion than 
10 :]."), and that consequently even an excellently reeled 
J 3/1. "3 must contain all sizes from about 11 to K. In 
fact, even in a well-reeled skein of lo/\o, of about 50 
yards length, we shall find : 

of size 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 

about 3% -10% 20% 40% 15% lO^/c 2% 

This table expresses the smallest theoretical pro- 
portion, which, however, is always exceeded in skeins 
longer than 50 yards. By this we can see how wrong 
the trade usage is: that a bale of 1;?/1.j allows no 
greater ecart than •") den. ; when in reality it always 
exceeds ('> den. This error results from the habit of 
finding the ecart by skeins of loO meters, which ecart 
is not only wrong but highly inconstant, as proven 
bv our experiment of I0() sizings of 30 labels, and which 
is also to be seen on every page of the publication of 
the ]\lilan and Como Conditioning Houses, which we 
referred to in the first chapter. 

In order to find out the length that should serve 
as a basis for calculating the variations of size, it is 
necessary to look at the work of reeling. 

The reeling-girl is spinning I to (i threads at a 
time out of 30 cocoons, with a si:)eed varying, accord- 
ing to the ([uality of cocoons, from 100 to 130 meters 
in a minute. This speed is so regulated that the girl 



S E R I V A L O R 47 

has time to "'cast" a new thread at every break, which 
breaks average lo a minute. In the time between one 
"cast" and the other each of the six threads runs there- 
fore about l"i<» meters, and this length represents 

15 
the average of the defect caused by the reehng-girk 
If, then, we want to test the thread with regard to this 
defect, we must, according to theory, divide it into 
lengths of 5-10, but not 450 meters; this latter length 
would serve only if the reeling-girls were working 
50-100 times slower than they do, that is to say, if they 
were nearly sleeping. 

In fact, the testing must be done by lengths not 
over 50 and sometimes down to 5 meters. Even under 
this condition it must never be based on the extremes, 
as these are never "constant" even when established 
by a very great number of essays. There are even 
mathematicians who do not consider the extremes at 
all. After many practical experiments the Laboratory 
Serivalor, Iiowever, has come to the conclusion that, 
for our purpose, the extremes are to be taken into con- 
sideration as well as the other elements of testing for 
regularity. 

Continuing now our research for the smallest pos- 
sible variations of size within the thread, we find that 
they are limited toward the thick side. A reeling-girl 
that has an order to reel five cocoons has no honest 
reason for taking six of them, and the thread therefore 



48 S E R I V A L O R 

ought to show no greater thickening of the desired 
size than is justified by the preceding formula of 10 :15 ; 
nay, the formula must in this case be reduced to 13 :15 
as the thickening of the cocoon thread is less important 
than its thinning towards the end. The formula 13 :15 
is to be understood in this way, that for the average 
size of 13 the heaviest size ought not to be over 15, in 
other words : tJie thickest parts of a thread ought not 
to surpass its average size by more than 15 per cent. 
This theoretical claim is justified by the fact that 
threads of this regularity occur, but they are uncom- 
monly rare, which proves that either the cocoons are, 
in general, not assorted with sutBcient care, or that the 
controlling of the reeling-girls is not as strict as it. 
should be. For the girl will take six cocoons instead 
of five whenever for a certain time she has allowed the 
reeling to go on with three instead of five cocoons. As 
the controlling of size is done by skeins (provino) of 
450 meters, she wants to bring about the right size of 
the latter by adding to the size as much as she has 
lost by her carelessness. This ought to be strictly 
avoided, but it has become so common nevertheless that 
it has brought al)out the adage : 

Tra il grosso cd il fiiio 
Sorte il provino. 

("What with a thick thread, what with a thin one, 
springs forth the provino.") 

Toward the thin side the possible deviation is 



S E R I V A L O R 49 

greater, for to the natural irregularity of 10:13, or 
77 :100, are added the unavoidable breaks of the co- 
coon-thread, which, as we have seen, take away at 
least 1/5, sometimes 2/5 of the size, as long as they are 
not mended. (In reeling four cocoons this frequently 
occurring accident diminishes the size by 2/4^50 per 
cent., and therefore at least five cocoons should be em- 
ployed, as mentioned in Chapter I.) 

In fact, the variations toward the thin side are 
in the best case not inferior to 30 per cent., which corre- 
sponds to the coincidence that the reeling-girl missed 
a "cast," while the thread was running i)0 per cent, of 
its regular size. 



We have seen, then, that the testing for regularity 
can be done only by lengths of 5 to 50 meters at the 
highest. Now it remains to fix the number of these 
pieces necessary for reliable testing. This number can 
be found only by experiments. By many of these it has 
been ascertained that, as a rule, at least 200 and for 
very irregular threads at least 400 are necessary to 
obtain constant results. 

The calculations to be made with this material can- 
not be explained here, being intelligible only to mathe- 
maticians who know ihcni as the "Theory of the least 
squares." To any of those exj)erts who may read this 
I want to say that the greater or smaller difference be- 
tween the results of the arithmetical and the geomet- 
rical series of differences gives a reliable indication. 



50 S E R I V A L O R 

whether we are in presence of a bale of "Natives'' or 
of "Filature." With the latter the difference is always 
below 5 per cent., with the former above 5 per cent. 
Though a mathematical explanation is impossible 
in this place, the procedure can be exhibited to the 
reader by graphic reproductions. Those given here 
are made for size 13/15 on skeins of 20 yards, and 
are applicable for this size only. For the conditions 
of the regularity of the silk thread are such that the 
thinner sizes can be made neither as regular nor as 
irregular as the thicker ones. This will appear evident 
to anybody who reflects upon the irregularities that 
must occur, and those that may occur, with four co- 
coons on the one hand, and eight cocoons on the other. 
Conse(|uently the distances between the degrees 1-10 
of the gradation Seri valor are different for different 
sizes. 



The working girl charged with weighing the little 
skeins of 20 yards is registering them on a sheet of 
paper on whose left hand margin the sizes 4 to 33 are 
printed in a vertical row, while to each of these figures 
corresponds a horizontal row of numbers from 1 to 60 
(see plates). The first skein being for instance of size 
14, it is registered by a dash through number one of 
series 14, the second of size 17, by one through number 
one of series 17, and so on, until all the 200 skeins are 
registered. 

Tt is evident, that the more regular a bale of 13/15 



S E R I V A L O R 51 

is, the more frequently will occur the size 14, and 
after it 13 and 15, while, the more irregular it is, the less 
frequently these three sizes will turn up, while those 
distant from the average will increase proportionately. 

Having finished the registering, the dashes will 
form a triangle, whose basis will be the shorter and 
whose height the greater, the more regular the bale is, 
while on the contrary the height will be the lower and 
the basis the larger, the more irregularly it was reeled. 
(For all these, and all the following conclusions it 
is an essential condition that the silk serving for the 
test should be taken from 20-30 skeins, drawn from 
all parts of the bale. Carelessly drawn skeins, or a 
smaller number of them cannot give reliable results.) 
By com])aring. then, the basis to the height, we arrive 
at a gradation of regularity, and even the aspect of 
the diagram suffices for giving a general idea of it. 
This comparison, however, is not sufficient for a grada- 
tion by tenths of degrees, as the Laboratory Serivalor 
is calculating it. 

Let us now look at the following diagram, repre- 
senting "Degree Serivalor" (S") 1 of regularitv. for 
size ];5/15. 

Di,\(;k.\M 1. 
We see that the -^00 skeins are divided as follows : 



Size. . . . 


. . 10 


11 


12 


l.S 


14 


15 


1() 


17 


.Skeins. . 


o 


s 


30 


:is 


id 


46 


29 


1 



52 SERIVALOR 

Diagram 2. 
The diagram, rei^resenting S" 2, contains : 

Size 9 10 n 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 

Skeins 2 4 10 29 34 43 38 29 10 1 

We see that the number of the "ideaF' size 14 has 
diminished from 46 to 43, while the basis of the triangle 
is enlarged by the sizes 9 and 18. But we see also that 
size IS appears only once in 200 skeins, which proves 
that a smaller number of them could have been suffi- 
cient only in exceptional cases. 

The following diagram represents S'* 3 : 

Diagram 3. 
It contains : 

Size S 9 10 11 12 13 14 l.'j 16 17 IS 19 

Skeins.... 2 4 4 S 28 34 40 36 25 11 7 1 

It is to be observed how the gliding down of the 
center sizes is increasing, while the extremes are ap- 
I)earing only in small numbers, a proof that no judg- 
ment can be based on these alone. Compared with the 
preceding diagrams, f. i., they are but slightly dif- 
ferent ; in size 18 the difference is already more sensible 
(7 to 1) and so on for the other sizes, which demon- 
strates that the proportion of all sizes must be taken 
into consideration. 

Diagram 4. 
On this diagram, representing S'^ 4, there appears : 



S E R I V A L O R 53 

Size S 9- 10 11 12 1:5 li 15 16 17 18 19 20 

Skeins. .2 4 S 10 22 30 3S 31 21 15 9 3 1 

The greater irregularity is expressed by no new- 
extreme on the thin side, but only by the continual 
"gliding down" of the central sizes: while on the thick 
side there appears a new extreme. This is a character- 
istic of those silks that are nearly too irregular for 
single weaving. Size 8 consisting only of ;> cocoon 
threads, even a careless reeling-girl will nol go on 
this way for a long time, and consequently the in- 
creasing irregularity expresses itself chiefly towards 
the heavy side. 

The following diagram, representing S" 5. 

Diagram 5 
contains : 

Size 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Ifi 17 IS 19 20 21 

Skeins.. 2 2 (i S 12 22 30 3(1 2S 21 15 9 5 3 1 

Incessantly the height is flattening towards both 
sides and the center size II has diminished from li'» 

( S" 1 ) to ;>(;. 

l)l.\(iKA.M <). 

This diagram, representing S" (>. contains: 

Size....? s 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 1(1 17 IS 19 20 21 22 
Skein?.. 2 4 6 10 14 20 27 34 24 20 IG 10 G 4 2 1 

The sizes 10 and 1 ], forming the extremes of S" 1, 
and represented there only by (<?-f-l) -^ skeins, are ap- 
])earing here already in the number of 26'; while the 



54 SERI\'ALOR 

extremes T and ■•^•-i amount as usual to a small number 
only. 

Diagram 7. 
In S'' 7 there appear: 

Size 6 7 S 9 10 n 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 

Skeins.. 2 2 4 6 s 14 22 26 32 23 19 14 10 7 5 3 2 1 

The reelin^s:-girl has become very careless. She 
ought to have had a thread of six cocoons, instead of 
which il was running sometimes with three cocoons 
( size ) only, and she made up for this negligence by 
increasing their number up to 9 (size 23). 

Diagram 8. 
On this diagram, representing S'^ S, we lind : 

Size 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 

Skeins.. 2 4 4 6 10 12 22 25 30 22 IS 15 9 6 5 4 3 2 1 

Toward the thin side the defect can scarcely in- 
crease any more, as the reeling can hardly go on with 
less than three cocoons ; while toward the heavy side 
it is, as it were, without limits. The center size 14 has 
diminished to 30 skeins. 

The diagram of S'^ 9 

Diagram 9 
contains : 

Size 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 

Skeins.. 2 2 4 4 4 S 14 22 26 28 20 10 14 10 8 6 4 3 2 2 ] 



SERI VALOR 55 

We see that the triangle is transformed into a 
pyramid with concave sides, a consequence of the fact 
that also in very irregular threads the extremes and 
their neighbors occur but in small numbers. The reel- 
ing varies now between two and ten cocoons. Never- 
theless this is still "Filature." Natives show other char- 
acteristics, as we mentioned before. 

The following diagram represents the lowest de- 
gree, S" 10. 

Diagram 10. 
It contains : 

Size 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 2?, 34 25 26 

Skeins.. 2 2 4 4 C 10 10 20 23 26 19 16 13 10 8 6 4 3 3 2 2 I 

The defect could hardly increase toward the thin 
side, as the reeling cannot go on with less than two 
cocoons ; toward the heavy side new extremes have 
appeared. The center size 14 has diminished to 26 
skeins. 

Finally we add the diagram of a Native 13/15. 

Diagram Native. 
Here we have : 

Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 

Skeins.. 1 1 2 2 7 13 15 16 17 17 IS 17 15 14 13 10 6 3 2 

Size 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 

Skeins.. 2 101010 010 01010101 



56 S E R I V A L O R 

We see that the reeling varies between two cocoons 
(that moreover were near to their end: size 4!) and 
16 of them. The center size has dwindled to 18 skeins. 
Notice that the series of sizes show several gaps, as 
the sizes 25, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 37 and 39 are not 
represented at all ; nevertheless they are doubtless con- 
tained in the bale, but we do not see them, as for the 
testing of a bale of such irregularity 200 skeins are in- 
sufficient and at least 400 of them are necessary. 

Of course, the real essay will never be identical 
with these theoretic diagrams, but its character will 
be easily recognized by the experienced tester. In 
general, if the Serivalor methods cannot be easily 
grasped in their foundations, their application requires 
neither special studies nor extraordinary abilities, but 
only calmness and attention. 



From what we have said in this chapter, it becomes 
evident that the reelcr must needs remain in the dark 
about the question how far his silk will prove up to the 
just claims of the consumer. The reeling-girl ought to 
be controlled by the forewoman to insure her working 
with the right number of cocoons, but the forewoman 
has about 15 preparing and 25 reeling-girls under her 
control, and each of the latter has, as we said before, 
15 opportunities to the minute for becoming careless. 
There are 18,000 of these opportunities for each kilo 
of silk, and ere a complete bale is reeled, about two 
millions of new "casts" should have been made without 



S E R I V A L O R 



O i 



loss of time. Xo control can guarantee this, and a con- 
stant and severe training of the girls can give only the 
hope but not the certainty of success. In fact, every 
girl works differently every day according to her health, 
her humor, etc. On the day after one or two holidays 
the work is worse than on other days. In times of 
political and social troubles the quality of the thread 
diminishes rapidly, and the manager of the establish- 
ment, to say nothing of the owner, does not become 
aware of it. Neither has he the possibility of con- 
trolling his ])roduct or of having it controlled by a 
public institution. Therefore, silks that get S" ] for 
regularity are very rare. 



The influence of regularity on the weaving is 
of two kinds: (a) The production is diminished by the 
frequent occurring of fine threads. This defect' will 
be the object of the next chapter, (b) The wortli of 
the tissue is diminished by the unevenness of the sur- 
face. This drawback is more sensible with the tram 
than with the warp, as in the latter the thinner or 
thicker threads are covered by their neighbors, while 
m the tram they join themselves together and form 
stripes, sometimes even folds, that may be the cause 
of severe loss to the manufacturer. 

The claims of the consumers to the evenness of 
the tissue are diff'erent according to its character, to 
fashion and also to the country. Nevertheless, the 
following table may serve as a general guide : 



58 



S E R n^ A L O R 



Not to he employed 
a S° of Regularity zvorse than: 

2.0 for single warps, Malines, 14/15, 

4.5 " " " broad stuffs, 

5.0 " double warps, broad stuff's, 

5.5 " Organzine 2 threads, 

6.0 " " 3 

4.5 " Tram 2 

5.0 " •' 3 " 

Each manufacturer may govern himself accord' 
ing to the claims of his customers, by diminishing or 
heightening the degrees established here. The chief 
thing for him is that he ma}' disj)Ose of a system of 
testing that furnishes constant results and that he may 
be sure to receive always the same regularity under the 
same designation in Degrees Serivalor, whether he buys 
the bale to-day or a year hence, whether from reeler 
A or B, whether it is Italian Extra or Canton Native: 
he has to judge only by the gradation, and not by 
origin, time or name. 




S E R I \ A L O R 



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32 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 32 



33 


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12 13 14 


15 
15 


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16 


17 18 
17 18 


19 
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22 23 
22 23 


24 
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7 


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8 


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9 10 11 


12 13 14 


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9 


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27 28 29 30 31 32 33 


10 




Chapter IV 
FINE THREADS 

IN THE foregoing chapter we have considered 
regularity chiefly with regard to the surface of the 
tissue, but regularity also includes fine threads, as de- 
fects, as they form a great impediment to speedy 
production and therefore require special examination. 

Let us call in again the twelve experts of the 
second chapter and ask them : At which point a thread 
may be called a "fine thread ?" Is size 10 a fine thread ? 
Or size 9 ? Or 6 ? This time the twelve answers will 
be more uniform, if not more satisfactory: "We do 
not know." 

In fact, the answer to this question is not quite 
easy, and in order to find it, it is necessary to contem- 
plate the work as well of the reeler as of the weaver. 

Let us begin w'ith the latter. The loom evidently 
exercises nearly the same tension "T" on the thread, 



SERIVALOR 71 

whether it is working with size 9/11 or 29/31. It re- 
mains in both cases the same instrument with nearly 
identical qualities, and of this follows that "T" repre- 
sents an absolute and not a relative value, that is to 
say, that 'the loom requires a certain minimum re- 
sistance of the thread, without regard to its size. This 
tension can be measured by inserting a sensitive dyna- 
mometer into a well-mounted warp ; with results at 
about 25 grams for the weaving-loom, and near to .'iS 
grams for the lace-loom. The sizes 6.75 on the one 
hand, and 10 on the other, are able to resist this tension 
— as will be demonstrated in the chapter on Tensile 
Strength — and so we might establish, that for the 
weaving-loom the sizes below G.To, for the lace-loom 
those below 10 are to be considered as "fine threads." 
This is in accordance with practical experience. The 
thinnest size generally used for single weaving is 11/13 
(of which we know, however, that very often it is 12/13 
to 12/14) and in this size it requires no extraordinary 
skill of the reeling-girl not to go below 6 3/4. There 
are reelers, however, who produce 10/12 and even 9/11 
fit for single weaving; but it has not been possible till 
now to produce 8/10 for this purpose. In fact, the 
frequent thinning of 30 per cent, that was demonstrated 
as being inevitable in the last chapter, amounts to 3.7 
den. for size 9; consequently every bale of 8/10 must 
needs contain a great many passages of size (9-2.7) 
= 6.3, which will l)reak on the loom. While for 9/11 
the size of inevitnl)le fine threads will he 10-3 = 7. 



72 SERI VALOR 

and therefore it is possible to produce 9/11 fit for single 
weaving. 

The same way for size 14/15, that is generally em- 
ployed for Malincs, the inevitable thinning arrives at 
size 10.15, which is able to resist to the tension of 35 
grammes recpiired by the lace-loom. 

But a conscientious testing establishment cannot 
top at these figures and consider its task accomplished 
by them, nor should it declare that a bale of 38/30 
contains no fine threads, because the thimiest sizes oc- 
curring in it are above G 3/4. 

It was necessary, therefore, to establish relative 
measures, viz., such in proportion with the size of the 
tested bale, without regard to the fact that the loom 
is heedless of this size. 

Theoretical researches, as used in the last chapter, 
could give but a general idea about the variations of 
fine threads between good and bad silk ; these could be 
found only by practical experience. It was necessary 
to establish, by the work of many years and by experi- 
ments on thousands of bales, the proportions between 
the sizes reeled of 4, 5, 6, etc., cocoons, and only after 
having ascertained by long experience that f. i., not one 
bale of 19/21 appeared that did not contain at least 
size 14 ; this size 14 could be established as the mini- 
mum for S° 1, for size 19/21. On the other hand we 
had found that the worst bales of 19/21 went down 
as far as size 5, but also this fact had to be confirmed 
rei)eatedlv, until we could f\x the S° 10 at size 5. 



S E R I V A L O R Td 

It was demonstrated in the last chapter how the 
fine threads are to be found, but we said also how cau- 
tious we must be in drawing conclusions, having to do 
with extremes. Therefore we must not judge by the 
latter alone but must take into consideration the whole 
character of the triangle, and go on with our researches 
if the extreme found is not in accordance with the 
former. Also in this case experience is a great help, 
and difficulties that seemed puzzling at the beginning 
solve themselves readily later on. 

By our calculations we arrived at the following 
formula : 

-.} S 



— AI 



Di 



2 



in which 



D =: Degree Serivalor, 
M = Finest size of the tested bale, 
S = Average size of the tested bale. 

The following table may serve for practical pur- 
poses : 

Not to he used a S° 
of fine threads inferior to : 
1.5 for single warps !)/ll 
2.5 " " " 10/12 

3.5 " " " n/13 

4.5 " •' " 12/14 

5.0 " " " l;V15 and thicker. 



74 



S E R I V A L O R 



As regards the methods by which till now fine 
threads were found, there exists none, if the counting 
of breaks at the winding should not be considered as 
an endeavor in this direction. Its uselessness will be 
demonstrated in the next chapter. 





Chapter V 
THE ^^M N D I N G 

'T^iiF. testing method which we explained in the last 
-*- chapter is an indirect and tliercfore not an ideal 
one. What we found out was the size of the weakest 
spots, what we wanted to know was how resistent or 
how little resistent this weakest spot will be. From 
the size we concluded to the resistance, and in a rather 
reliable way, but the direct way is better than the in- 
direct one, and to test resistance itself would be no 
doubt preferable. There exist instruments for this 
purpose, called dynamometers, of which we shall speak 
later in the chapter on "Tensile Strength." Not only 
are these instruments and the whole method of using 
them unsuitable, as will be proved, but they can 
furnish only the average tensile strength, which is 
quite useless, as we may see from this example: 

A chain A consists of 3 links that, tested indi- 
vidually, showed the tensile strengths of 102, 83 and 
20 lb. ; a chain B, equally of 3 links, showed the 
strengths of 32, 30 and 28 lb. Although the average 



:o SERIVALOR 

strength of A is 68 lb., that of B only 30 lb., A will 
break at a tension of 20 lb., while B w'ill support up 
to 27 lbs., that is to say, the strength of B is in reality 
by 40 per cent, greater than that of A, though the 
average strength of the latter is more than twice that of 
the former. 

Applying, then, the law of mechanics: "A chain 
has the strength of its weakest links" to silk, we can 
say : "A zvarp has the strength of its ^veakest spots," 
and therefore it is this latter and not its average 
strength that we have to find out. There exist instru- 
ments also for this purpose, so called "continual dyna- 
mometers," but they have not proved reliable as yet, 
and moreover they are working very slowly, so that 
the testing of 80 kilometers, necessary for this pur- 
pose, would require days of 10 working hours each. 

But it appears that well jier formed winding could 
furnish an excellent way of determining the weak spots 
of great lengths and an indistinct comprehension of this 
fact might have contributed towards giving undue 
importance to the winding, h'or in order to perform 
it exactly, it would be an indispensable condition that 
the tension of the thread should be the same through- 
out — a condition that neither the olficial institutions 
nor the Laboratory Serivalor are able to accom])lish 
fully. The difficulties are : 

1. The revolving speed of the supplying reel 
ought to he unvariable during the ivhole operation. This 



S E R I V A L O R 77 

is impossible, as can readily be seen on an inserted 
dynamometer, which will show an average tension of 
o(> grams, f. i.. by variations from 10 to 50 grams. 

•<!. The silk ought to lie on the reel in loose—not 
stiiek together— threads. Rut we know that the threads 
of every skein not "rereeled'' are sticking together. 
The Conditioning Houses, and also the Laboratory 
Seri valor, arrive at a nearly satisfactory result by 
"rubbing off" the hard ])assages, that is to say, solving 
them by the '"dry"" way. The often employed "wet" 
way is quite wrong, and even i)rejudicial as will be 
demonstrated in another chapter. 

o. The length tested must be at least SO kilo- 
meters, taken from '^0 skeins (1 kilometers of each), if 
the result obtained should be "constant." This is ac- 
complished only by the L. S. but not l)y the C'ondi- 
ditioning Houses, for the latter employ ;Jo kilo- 
meters, in some places by (i km. from o skeins, in 
others by o km. from 10 .skeins, arriving at uncertain 
and contradictory result>, as they acknowledge in the 
publication referred to in the first chapter. 

4. 7 Jie te)ision during the zeinding must be pro- 
portional to the sice of the thread tested. This is not 
accomplished by the Conditioning Houses. They 
test all sizes by the same tension, about 1 grams, 
which is absolutely insufficient. A common single 
coeoon-thread will resist in different j)laces tensions 
of 8 to IS grams, and the silk thread consists of 4 to 



78 SERIVALOR 

8 and more cocoon threads ! A tension of -i grams 
will, therefore, make appear only those threads that 
lay broken in the skein, and those stuck together threads 
that were broken by the revolving force of the reel, 
although they may not even have been weak spots. 

On the contrary, the Laboratory Serivalor is ac- 
complishing this task by testing each size under a ten- 
sion proportional to its average tensile strength. In 
this way it finds out (with the restrictions deriving 
from par, 1, etc.) the number of spots that, in a length 
of 80 kilometers, are thinner than 25 per cent, of the 
average size, the results being "constant." 

This is not the place for entering into the details 
of construction of the apparatus by which the tension 
can be regulated according to the size. We confine 
ourselves to saying that by changing the speed and 
by cautiously employing "rope-friction'' every varia- 
tion may be obtained. 

After having got so far, the greatest difficulties 
were overcome and it was easy to establish the extreme 
values of : 



B for the best silk (S' 1) 

and 

W for the worst silk (S° 10) 



expressed in breaks 
within 80 kilometers. 



D being the Degree Serivalor, C the number of breaks 
in 80 kilometers, N the number of degrees desired, we 
have the formula — 



S E R I V A L O R 79 

c 



W-B 

D = — 

X-1 



This classification, together with that of Fine 
Threads (Chapter IV.) furnishes a rehable indication 
about the quantity of really weak spots— that is to 
say, possessing a tensile strength of less than 25 per 
cent, of that of the average size — contained in the 
bale tested. 

The classification of "Winding" must not be con- 
sidered, how^ever, as more than it is : an indication of 
the speed allowed for rational winding with 36-10 reels 
to each girl, keeping reels and girl continually em- 
ployed. The S° 1 indicates that the bale may be wound 
with the speed of meters in the minute, equal to twelve 
times its size; therefore size 13/15 with 12 x 14 = 
168 meters. The other degrees indicate: 

S" ■-. ''^' 4, 5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 

Size multiplied ])y 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 

that is, for 13/15 meters: 15-4 140 ]:.>(i 112 98 84 70 56 43 

But the zvinding does not allozc any conclusions 
to the other qualities of the thread. That this erro- 
neous conclusion is pretty general, is in consequence 
of the fact that not very long ago the weaver was 
employing only thrown silks for whose quality he ac- 
cepted the throwster's judgment; and for the throw- 
ster, of course, the winding forms a very important 



80 S E R I V A L O R 

part of his work. Another reason is that winding is 
the operation whose results are hrst known to the 
manufacturer, and this caused the false belief that 
these results are characteristic of the whole bale. But 
size 18/20, f. i., is always winding well — does this 
signify that all bales of this size are of the same 
quality ? 

Japans in general are better winders than many 
Italians. Are they better for that? China Double 
Extra winding worse than Italians — are they really 
inferior? Besides, is the judgment of the winding- 
girls constant? Anyone who will make experiments in 
this regard will find that they are contradictory to each 
other, and that the same girl will judge differently of 
the same bale to-day and to-morrow (of course being 
ignorant of the fact that it was the same bale). 

The exact test for winding is important for the 
throzvster ; for the manufacturer it is but an interesting 
detail, icithout great value for recognising the general 
quality of the bale tested. 

It is true that it is the duty of a good reeler to 
furnish silk that winds well, as already expressed by 
the tenth rule of Chapter II. The means to arrive at 
this end are not generally known, and it is not our 
object to explain them here. The Japanese have adopted 
the most radical one : Rerecling. which, however, is 
too expensive in Europe. Also the "rubbing off" of 
the hard passages is practiced with good success by 
many reelers. Some also try to hinder the sticking to- 



S E R I V A L O R 81 

gether of the threads hy applying diluted greasy suh- 
stances to them before they get on the reel. But this 
induces to "charging" the silk, and moreover brings 
about a certain mouldy odor, if not very cleverly done. 

But it is a fact that there exist good winding silks 
which are neither rereeled nor greased, nay, that these 
are the natural product, if the reeler knows his busi- 
ness. This is sufficient, and those who are producing 
badly winding silks must bear the consequences. 

One of the consequences of the sticking together 
of threads is the Double Ends which occur so 
often, and which the reeler does not know how to 
avoid. In fact, they are rarely the latter's fault, as 
everybody will acknowledge who is acquainted with the 
work of reeling. The double ends are formed them- 
selves during the winding by the stronger thread tearing 
away the weaker one at the spot where they stick to- 
gether, and drag it along for a length of time, until 
another break interrupts the double thread ftn-med in 
this way. (Such passages turned up as extremely heavy 
ones in the 200 skeins that we tested for Regularity.) 
Of the same origin are the "underslipped ends" (ends 
covered by the running thread on the l)obl)in ) which 
so often trouble the winder. 




Micropliotograph of a "Flock." 




A 



Chapter VI 
FLOCKS 

FTER having thus far examined those defects that 
are measurable by their length, we arrive at those 
that are measurable no more, but become visible and 
therefore numerable. They appear as knobs and knots 
in the thread, which however do not consist, as many 
believe, of an adherent alien material (waste) but 
of a normal cocoon-thread that fell off the cocoon 
in many loops at once and had no time for stretch- 
ing itself before it was united to the main thread. 
The opposite photograph (taken from a publication of 
the Laboratory of the Stagionatura Anonima, Milano, 
with kind permission of the editors) gives a good pic- 
ture of one of these "flocks." 

The origin of this defect was explained in the 
fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth of the reeling-rules, 
and we might say at once that it cannot be completely 



84 S E R I V A L O R 

avoided. Good reelers, of course, produce a cleauer 
thread than careless ones, but it is impossible to pro- 
duce a thread as clean as it is required by the loom. 
The flocks must be removed, therefore, from the skeins 
by special "cleaning-girls," and this is a wearisome 
task that does not give satisfactory results and, more- 
over, very often is the cause of the skeins "falling 
in layers.' The real cleaning must be done by well 
performed warping. This should be done : 

1 . With not more than 300 threads at once ; 

2. By one clever working girl and an assistant ; 

3. The mounting should be such that the work- 
ing girls can overlook a length of two yards, and that 
between the single threads there remains a distance 
of about J4 inch. 

4. The speed must be regulated in order that the 
working girls may have time for removing the flock and 
reknotting the thread, without stopping the machine. 
(Such stoppings produce stripes of dift'erent tension 
in the war]), which in the tissue ajipear of diflterent 
luster.) 

Only such silk ought to be declared as not clean 
whose number of flocks is too great for allowing their 
removal without stopping the machine. All others 
will yield, by this procedure, a cleaner warp than 
can be jirodnred by the best reeler, and the costs of 



S E R I V A L O R 85 

the cleaning are slight, even in America. By adopt- 
ing this system, the manufacturer has the possibility 
of being more indulgent with regard to cleanliness and 
consequently buying at a cheaper price. 

The L. S. calls such defects ""flocks" when they 
increase the diameter of the thread, distin«-uishine 
however between small ones, that is, those that pass 
a reed of 58 splits, of No. 9-J:, to the centimeter — 157 
to the Paris inch, and bigger ones — viz., those of a 
diameter below or above 1/10 millimeter. 

They are found by passing the "-^0 skeins over a 
dark background and their number is brought into 
proportion to the kilogram. The extremes for B (best) 
and W (worst) have been established empirically, 
but it appeared unfeasible to establish the gradation 
by arithmetic division of the series ; it was necessary 
to recur to geometrical progression, according to the 
following formula : 

a, b, c, d, e, . . . . being the componenls of the 
series, and y + z the difterence between a and b. then 

c = I) + y -r 2z 
(1 = c + y -f- 3z 
e = d 4- y -f 4z, etc. 

There does not exist an official system of judging 
cleanliness as yet. The silk inspecteurs, however, 
give their attention chiefly to this quality, accepting 
"clean" bales as good ones, and "unclean" bales as 
bad ones. By this they are committing the logical error 



8(i S E R I V A L O R 

of concluding from the parts to the whole, instead of 
the opposite way. It is the same as if from the fact 
that every bird has two legs I would conclude that a 
man standing before me must be a bird, because he 
has two legs. The inspecteurs, however, reason in this 
way, thinking good silk is clean, consequently clean 
>ilk nnist be good. 

Cleanliness is one of the qualities of good silk; 
it may be considered of more or less importance by one 
or the other, but in no case is it considered as 
Quality itself. We have also seen that it can be 
improved by subsequent procedures while as Quality 
can be considered only those intrinsic characteristics 
that are unalterable. 

As practical hints for the manufacturer we might 
add that according to our exi)erience the S° 3 of cleanli- 
ness is sufficient nearly for all reasonable claims ; but 
it is not too difficult to find S° 2 and even 1><2. On 
the other hand even S° 5 might be improved, in the 
wav explained before, to S" 1. with slight costs. 





ClIAPTEK VII 

L O O P S 

OUR way through the different forms of the original 
defects of silk, which, as our readers will have 
noticed, leads from the greater to the smaller, has now 
arrived at those that are hardly visible and therefore 
diffictdt to lind. Nevertheless it is necessary to find 
and control them, for just as the bacilli to mankind, 
these little defects become dangerous to the loom by 
their enormous number. 

The defect which is the object of the present 
chapter is but a smaller form of the "flocks" treated 
in the preceding one, but it occurs on the average 
5.000 times as often, and therefore makes itself very 
much felt. 

\\'hen the roundabout way made l)y the "'bava." 
before uniting itself with its neighl)ors. is not great 
enough to render the thread setisibly thicker, we call 
it "loop." The following schematic design shows un- 
der a. b, c. d, c. /, (/. the transitions from flocks to 



88 



SERI VALOR 



loops ; the gradations are countless, but the line of 
demarcation is given, as we said before, by the sensible 
thickening of the diameter. 




As the loops do not sensibly increase the diameter 
of the thread, they pass unnoticed also through the 
finest reed, and in this regard the weaver need not 
pay any attention to them. But while being closely 
pressed together on the wari)-beam they get entangled 
with their neighboring threads and hinder the clear 
opening of the shed, which is the cause of many breaks 
and weaving-defects; the weaver therefore justly fears 
the dangerous little enemy. Its origin is heedlessness 
with regard to the Seventh of the reeling rules, the 
complete observation of which, however, is not pos- 
sible. The worm crosses the thread in infinite varia- 
tions of density, and it might be said that in this regard 
not one cocoon is quite the same as another; conse- 
quently the assorting according to the texture is 
possible only to a certain degree, that is to say, the 
defect of loops is inevitable. In fact even the best 
silk contains about 50,000 of them to the kilo, the 



SERI VALOR 89 

worst, however, more than a hundred times as many, 
that is about five milhons. 

The cocoons of widest texture are called in Italy 
"Bonibaggiati," an inappropriate term, because of not 
expressing the real thing ; more suitable is the French 
"Satines" as the wider texture causes greater luster 
on the cocoon as well as on the tissue. 

This, our theory of the origin of looj)s, is un- 
known to the reelers and is published here for the first 
time. We must not forget that the whole procedure 
in spinning has not got very far yet beyond the simple 
principles of a rustic home industry and avails itself 
very little of scientific methods. 

That the "Bombaggiati" must be eliminated is 
known nearly to all reelers — which does not im])ly 
that they are all doing it — but when I tried to find out 
what "Bombaggiati"' really are, nobody could give me 
a precise definition, as they are not judged by clearly 
\isil)le marks, but found out by an uncertain, instinc- 
tive distinction. TIow reliable this way is mav be as- 
certained by the following experiments : Give an order 
to a very clever "sorting-woman" to clinu'nate all 
"Bombaggiati" out of a basket of unassorted cocoons ; 
after a while she will bring back the basket of '"puri- 
fied" cocoons, and we put it aside. The next dav we 
give the same cocoons to the same woman in another 
basket, and she will find more "Bombaggiati" among 
them, and so we might repeat the thing five times and 
always nev.' "Bombaggiati" will turn up. 



90 S E R I V A L O R 

Or we take ten cocoons of middle texture (they 
are quickly and surely discernible under the micro- 
scope) and show them to ten experts with the question 
whether they are "Bombaggiati" or not; half of them 
will answer in the affirmative, the other half in the 
negative, and none will recognize the real thing : that 
the cocoons hold the middle between the good and the 
bad ones in this respect. 

Even real "Bombaggiati," however, furnish a 
good thread, if they are not mixed together with 
others, and are treated according to their nature ; for 
the procedure adapted to them is not fit for cocoons 
of denser texture. 

An official method of testing exists as little for 
"loops" as for '"flocks." Inspectors think they can 
judge of the defect by straightening the skein so that 
it 'forms an even, glossy surface, while looking at it in a 
corner with their backs to the window, so that their 
eyes receive the light reflected by the silk. In this way 
they can examine the surface only, which of course is 
insufficient, as the inside of the skein remains unknown 
and. moreover, they are deceived by the circumstance 
that the loops become the more visible the more lus- 
trous the silk is. And as it is the task of the good 
reeler to produce a thread as lustrous as possible, they 
will see more loops in good silk than in inferior silk. 
I myself produced once, by a new system, a skein of 
extraordinary luster, but all the reeling-girls, the fore- 
woman and the director of the establishment declared 



SERl VALOR Dl 

it to be very "downy," that is to say, full of "loops.'" 
Tested in my laboratory it proved to contain only 
20,000 loops to the kilo, that is. better than S° 1. 

The loops must not be looked for in the skein but 
on the single thread, where they can be counted, which, 
however, is not an easy task. The generally used 
"black" boards, reels, etc., are not black in an optical 
sense, but dark blue, or green, or brown and very 
fatiguing to the eye. Only exact optical contrivances 
allow continual and easy working and clear discerning 
and counting. 

Especially do the man}- "casts," viz., beginnings of 
new cocoon-threads, lead to errors, as they are gener- 
ally accompanied by looi)s. which however must not 
be considered as a defect. Dark days and artificial 
light are unsuitable for the work, and in the Winter, 
when there are only a few hours of good daylight, 
these must be well used. 

The calculation of the ten degrees Serivalor is 
done according to the formula given in the last chapter, 
but it is to be observed that the visibility of looj^s is 
proportional to the square root of the thicker size, by 
reasons known to geometry (diameter of cylinders). 

As to practical use, our experiences have proved 
that the manufacturer may employ even S° 4, but it is 
safer not to go beyond 3)/j. Of course, the claims are 
dififerent according to the articles manufactured and to 
the customers. It is interesting in this regard to con- 
sider the relation of Cevennes silks to their customers. 



92 S E R I V A L O R 

These silks are known as very "duveteuses," but people 
simply say, shrugging their shoulders, "C'est la nature 
de ces soies," which, however, is only partly true. In 
the nature of these silks lies only a small part of the 
cause, viz., their thick and hard gum, which, as said 
in the Fifth spinning-rule, opjioses resistance to the 
straightening of the thread. The chief cause lies in 
the fact that French reelers with their system "() la 
Chauibon' arrive at too scarce a i)roduction and in 
order to make up as well as possible for this drawback 
are obliged to a forced speed (about ISO meters in the 
minute, instead of llO-loO meters with the system 
"a la tavclle") which does not allow the necessary 
time for the right soaking and straightening of the 
thread (see Fourth, Fifth and Fighth spinning-rules). 
But with the system "a la lavclle" of Cevennes-cocoons 
there could be reeled a thread that would get S° 1-2 
for "loops." 

Nevertheless Cevennes silks, as they are, have 
their faithful friends, who even pay good prices for 
them. This seems to contradict the assertion that 
"loops" are a serious defect ; in reality it only proves 
the truth of what we said in the Prospectus : that every 
silk is good, if emplo\ed in the right way. 

Silks reeled "() /</ Chambon" have not only their 
defects but also their advantages, and such that are 
hardly to be obtained by reeling "V/. la tavclle" ; they 
have nearly no weak spots and this makes them es- 
pecially fit for the lace-loom. In fact, Lyon manu- 



S E R I \ A L O R 



93 



factures employ them chiefly for "tulles" and 
similar purposes, viz., for light warps, that are not 
liable to entangle. The Lyon industry has always 
shown an extraordinary ability in employing every 
kind of silk according to its special qualities — an ability 
accjuired by long and intelligent observation and pre- 
served by tradition. But we would assert that the 
same advantage may be obtained in a short time by 
iiakiniT use of the classifications of "Serivalor." 





Chapter VIII 
COHESION 

T ET US again cast a glance at the various forms of 
■'-' the original defects, thus far treated upon. From 
those that are measurable we have proceeded to those 
that can be measured no more, but can still be seen 
and felt, and thence to those that are hardly visible 
but still countable. Now we are arrived at those 
which are neither measurable nor visible nor count- 
able, to avoid which is as difficult for the reeler as it 
is difficult for the observer to find them, and which 
cannot be improved. 

From their general diffusion and from the impos- 
sibility of improving them there results that they are 
reflecting the intrinsic constitution of the silk and con- 
sequently its real "Quality," while all the other forms 
are only accessories. 

An intermediate form between '"loops'' and the 
invisible defect of bad cohesion are the so-called 
"rognose" (scabious) threads, which the reelers sup- 



SERIVALOR 95 

pose come from cocoons which though of normal ap- 
pearance, yield a thread affected by a disease. In 
reality this defect is nothing but the smallest form of 
"loops" caused by not observing the Fourth. Fifth, 
Seventh and Eighth of the spinning rules ; it forms a 
visible loop no more, but apparently compact thicken- 
ings of the thread, which, however, under a lens of 
three-fold linear enlargement are recognizable as small 
loops, or rather undulations. 

The following schematic design shows the dift'er- 
ence between a "loops" and b "rognose" : 




Such threads are discernible also to the naked eye 
by a certain rough appearance. This defect, although 
a serious one, does not occur frequently. In the test- 
ing of the Laboratory Serivalor it is included under 
"Cohesion." 

Let us now suppose that the reeler has succeeded 
in producing a thread that appears straight and glossy 
not only to the naked eye. but also under enlarge- 
ments of 5, 10 and even 20 diameters. Only when 
employing one of 30 diameters, do we begin to see that 
the straightness is only apparent ; and, increasing the 



U6 SERIVALOR 

enlargement, we recognize that there does not exist a 
cocoon-thread completely straight and united with its 
neighbors without any gap between them, and we be- 
come aware of the fact that the loom accepts as the 
best silks those that contain the smallest gaps, while 
those containing large gaps turn out to work badly 
on it. This makes it evident that this deeply con- 
cealed, perpetually acting constitution of every thou- 
sandth of an inch forms the real "cjuality" of the silk 
thread. 

This is the reason ivhy one tvarp gets roughened 
by ilie reed and the other is not, ivhy in the one so 
many tJireads ore split (i^'liich then are mistaken as 
double ends), while in the other tliey remain like 
wires, why one tram or organzine eomes baek clean 
and faultless from the dyer's, while others get doivny 
and sii'ollen. (The latter defect must be distinguished 
from "lousiness," which will be treated separately.) 

That also this defect is but another want of "uni- 
formity" is shown by the fact that even these smallest 
undulations alter the diameter of the thread, as may be 
seen from the following' schematic design : 



Why, then, is this equality of such prevailing in- 
fluence on the loom? Because it makes the thread 
more or less resistant against friction, and because it 
is chieflv friction and not tension, as is the general 



SERIVALOR 97 

belief, that the loom exercises on the thread. In the 
same way all products "of the textile industr}-, clothes, 
linen, etc., are worn out by friction. 

This made me, in lOOi, give the name of "'Fric- 
tion" to this quality of the silk thread, and shortly 
afterwards this term, unknown till then in the silk 
trade, was beginning to turn up in many places. 
Meanwhile I had found that I had misnamed the 
thing, that friction might be considered as the way 
of testing silk in this regard, but that the quality itself 
must be rightly called "Cohesion." Thereafter I used 
this latter term in occasional publications, and the con- 
sequence was that it completely replaced the other. It 
is now generally used by people who test the thread 
with their fingernail (using a piece of about 1/500 of 
the mininnmi length required for a reliable result), 
but who will never admit of whom they borrowed the 
notion and the term. For an European silk man knows 
everything by himself and will never acknowledge that 
he has been taught by anybody, and prize competitions 
for new methods of testing silk cannot be hoped for 
in Europe. 

I have the satisfaction of knowing that the Aus- 
trian Government, which previously had tested army- 
cloth by the usual dynamometers, after 1904 adopted 
the testing by friction, which I had been the first to 
recommend. 

Whether a silk thread is more or less perfect in 



98 SERIVALOR 

cohesion depends on the observation of the spinning 
rules from four to nine, especially of the last one, 
which, however, can hardly be controlled. 

Whether the "twist" is right, only an experi- 
enced observer can see only from a certain visual angle, 
and the forewoman in nine cases out of ten has no idea 
of the thing. All twists break and must be renewed ; 
suppose this happens to every reeling-girl two to four 
times in the hour, every bale contains 5,000 to 10,000 
different twists, viz., as many different cohesions, and 
how should the manager, or the reeler, know how all 
these have succeeded? 

A decisive influence is also exercised by the 
water used in the reeling, which, however, does not 
remain the same throughout the year, but is altered 
in its composition by dry periods on the one hand, 
and heavy rains on the other, and accordingly dis- 
solves the sericin more or less. ( Chemical correc- 
tions have proved useless till now, according to my 
experience.) Of course, it would be the best thing 
to employ distilled water, if it were not too expensive 
in Italy, which has no cheap coal ; the cost would 
amount to one lire per kilo — about nine cents per 
pound, and Italian reelers do not gain enough to be 
able to support this difference, as we shall see in the 
Fourteenth and Fifteenth chapters. 

Finally also, the nature of the sericin itself is of 
great influence, and this varies according to the race, 
and to the region where the latter is reared. Though 



S E R I V A L O R u» 

very little is known in this regard, it might be said 
in general that hill countries of about oOO to 400 
meters above the level of the sea yield the best 
cocoons in Italy; that the race called "Gialli piiri" is 
the best, and next to it in downward gradation : "Iii- 
croci Cliincsi," "Bigialli," "Incroci Giapponcsi." 

Though generally recognized as the best race, the 
rearing of "Gialli puri" is diminishing instead of in- 
creasing, owing to the circumstance that an oiuice of 
their seed yields 40 to 50 kilos of cocoons only, while 
an ounce of "Incrocichinesi" may yield 70 to 90 kilos. 
The cocoons of the former ought to bring 50 per cent, 
more in consequence, but the reeler ])ays only 14 per 
cent, more, as it is impossible also for him to obtain 
a higher advance from his customers. 

We have already explained the influence of cohe- 
sion on the loom. Throwsters never become aware 
of this influence and remain ignorant of the causes. 
Even the real "tensile strength" remains unknown to 
them ; what they find out is only the more or less fre- 
quent occurring of weak spots (that is, appearing weak 
only on their machines), and in this regard they are 
as competent as it is possible for empirics to be. 

We said before that the quality of cohesion is 
visible under the microscope ; but from visibility to 
measuring and classifying the defects is a long and 
wearisome way. 

Some direction is given by the fact that the num- 



100 SERIVALOR 

ber and the size of the gaps increase with the en- 
largement : it would be possible therefore to establish 
a gradation according to their visibility under various 
lenses. But here arises the difficulty that the range 
of vision of a microscope diminishes proportion- 
ately to its enlargement, while on the other hand great 
lengths must be examined in order to arrive at con- 
stant results. It is necessary therefore to choose 
microscopes of relatively great range and to find a 
method of looking over great lengths in the shortest 
time possible. But this method renders photographic 
reproduction impossible, as the microscope must be 
kept moving on the object. The various forms found 
in this way cannot be represented, therefore, by de- 
scription or illustration, but only by demonstration 
of the objects, let us say, in a lecture. 

Another suggestion is furnished by the conclu- 
sion that the best silk must be the one that has the 
smallest diameter in relation to its size, the straight 
line being the shortest. But it is difficult to find out 
the diameter of a silk thread, not only because it is 
of a soft material yielding to pressure, but also be- 
cause the diameter varies according to the number of 
cocoons employed, as will be explained in another 
chapter. This makes the task very complicated and 
not profitable. 

A third way, and evidently the best of all, is the 
direct measuring of the friction necessary for wear- 
ing- out the thread. But there does not yet exist a 



S E R I V A L O R 101 

reliable apparatus for measuring friction, and science 
in general is not very much advanced in this direction 
and does not offer any help. 

For two properties are acting here, which, though 
of opposite nature, are always coupled together- 
Friction and x'\dhesion. The more smooth the sur- 
face of a thing is, the less is the friction developed 
by it, and, vice versa, the larger the adhesion. I have 
not found an apparatus yet, except the one constructed 
by myself, that separates these two influences— nay. 
even none that would have betrayed a notion of the'ir 
existence. 

The Austrian Government tries to overcome this 
difficulty by applying acids to the tissues to be tested, 
in order to render their surface rough— a doubtful 
procedure which I would not imitate. 

Having succeeded, as said before, in constructing 
an apparatus that yields reliable and constant results'! 
the transformation of these into Degrees Serivalor 
offered no difficulties. It would be useless to give the 
formula here, as the components cannot be found 
without the apparatus. 

All 8° of Cohesion may be employed for double- 
width weaving, even with great speed, but the reed 
must be the coarser, the worse the S° is. 

This is illustrated by the following table: 



102 



SERIVALOR 



Degree of 


Cohesion : 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


Threads to the 


split. 


in 






















1 


















64 


50 


37 


24 


2 






cr. 








64 


56 


49 


41 


34 


26 


19 


3 






O 


62 


57 


52 


47 


42 


37 


32 


27 


22 


17 


4 






m 


50 


47 


43 


39 


35 


31 


27 


23 


19 


15 


5 






n 

2 


42 


38 


35 


32 


29 


26 


23 


20 


17 


14 


6 






§■. 


38 


35 


32 


29 


27 


24 


21 


19 


16 


13 


7 






o 


32 


30 


28 


25 


23 


21 


18 


16 


14 


12 


8 






o 


30 


28 


26 


24 


22 


20 


18 


16 


14 


12 



Of the proportion of splits to the centimeter and 
to the Paris inch, as well as of the right size of the 
splits, we shall speak in a later chapter. 

Empirics always had the indistinct feeling that 
there was something in the quality of silk which they 
could not find out by their simple means. They there- 
fore had recourse to the dynamometer by the aid of 
which it is possible to judge of tensile strength and 
ductility, if it is cautiously employed. This, however, 
w^as not done, ductility was misnamed elasticity, and 
so people arrived at delusive results, as we shall see 
in the following chapters. 




Chapter IX 
DUCTILITY AND ELASTICITY 

JUST as the two qualities mentioned in the last chap- 
ter, friction and adhesion, though of opposite 
nature, are often confounded with each other, it is 
also the same with regard to ductility and elasticity, 
and for similar reasons. 

If a solid body is exposed to a certain tension it 
is extending in that direction. All solid bodies are 
extensible, but of course they are not all so in the same 
degree, as can easily be seen by comparing the ductility 
of a hemp rope with that of a copper wire and that 
of an elastic string. If the tension is interrupted be- 
fore it arrives at breaking the body, the latter returns 
more or less to its former length, in consequence of the 



104 SERIVALOR 

quality called elasticity. In this regard India rubber 
forms no exception ; it is exceptional only by its ex- 
traordinary ductility in connection with its elasticity. 
On the contrary there exists a small number of bodies 
possessing considerable ductility with very little elas- 
ticity and to these belong all hardened, slimy substances, 
and among these also the silk thread. 

Considering now various bodies with regard to 
their ductility and elasticity, f. i., steel, copper, India 
rubber, cotton, silk, etc., we soon find out that they 
are in general the stronger, and the more resistant the 
more they possess of elasticity and the less of ductility, 
and vice versa. The silk thread, hozvever, possesses 
only great ductility and nearly no elasticity, and try- 
ing to measure the former quality and considering it 
a great advantage forms a fatal error, which is not 
improved by misnaming as "elasticity" what is only 
ductility. 

Certainly, it would be desirable to find elastic silk, 
and consequently to test the thread with regard to this 
quality. Till now, however, nothing has been tried 
this way, and should it ever be done it would certainly 
appear that the more elastic silks are the less tensible 
ones, and vice versa. 

Constantly occurring and nevertheless very little 
observed proof of this fact are the lustrous stripes 
in the warp, of which we said in the sixth chapter that 
they are cavised by the stopping of the warping ma- 
chine. The slightly increased tension caused by the 



SERIVALOR 105 

new impulse given to the bobbins is sufficient for 
lengthening the threads, and the more so the more 
ductility, that is to say, the less cohesion they possess. 
If the silk threads were elastic they would return to 
their former length after this slight tension ; by their 
higher luster, visible afterwards in the tissue, they 
show that this is not the case, except when, as said 
above, they are of good cohesion, in which case the 
defect becomes imperceptible. 

Doughy bodies like "macaroni," which are also a 
hardened, slimy substance, are comparatively resistant 
and nearly not tensible when very dry ; but when 
soaked very tensible and not resistant. 

In li'hich state are tlicy stronger^ 

We can observe a similar thing with silk. Cutting 
open a sizing skein, we divide the 400 threads into two 
equal parts, one of which we bring into air of 100 per 
cent, humidity, leaving it there for twenty-four'hours, 
while we expose the other to a temperature of about 
80° C. in order to desiccate. Then we try 100 threads 
of each half on the dynamometer (taking out only one 
thread at a time and leaving the others in their actual 
condition), and the result will be, that the wet threads 
are more tensible. but less resistant, the dry ones less 
tensible and more resistant. 

Which is the better of the two? 

In the following chajjter we shall demonstrate how 



106 SERIVALOR 

cautiously the results of the dynamometer are to be 
made use of. 

Pasting two sheets of paper together, it will be an 
easy thing to draw the one along the other as long as 
the gum is wet, while they will oppose strong resist- 
ance, as soon as the gum has become dry ; we see that 
the molecules of the gum were easily gliding when 
wet, but strongly adherent to each other when dry. 
Similarly, the molecules of the wet silk thread will 
glide along each other, which makes the thread ten- 
sible, but much less resistant than the dry one. 

Elasticity and ductility are therefore connected 
opposite qualities (just as friction and adhesion) ; the 
former alone is an advantage, the latter a defect. 

(The difficulties arising from dry air in the weav- 
ing-rooms are caused by electric currents, which are 
accumulated by dry objects, and they have nothing to 
do with elasticity or ductility. We shall speak of this 
matter in the chapter on "Soaking.") 

Turning now to the loom, we see, first of all, that 
it does not require any considerable ductility of the 
warp. By the opening of the shed the threads form 
the hypotenuses a d and d c oi two rectangular tri- 
angles, whose other sides : 

b d measures about 12 centimeters 
a b " " 30 

be " " 120 



SER I VALOR 



107 




Consequently : 



a b + b c = 30 + 120 := 150 ctm. 



a d + (1 c = F a b- + c d'^ + Vh c- + b d^ = j/gou + 144 + 
K 14,400 + 144 = 32.3 + 120.G = 152.9 ctm. 

that is to say, that the length of l.")0 ctm. must be 
increased by 2.9 ctm. := 2 per cent, only, which is nearly 
performed by the mere movement of the warp-beam, 
with very little tension of the warp. 

In fact, the same length is yielded by the cotton 
warp that has only 2 to -i per cent, of ductility and by 
Schappe, with 4 to (i per cent., while silk has at least Ki 
per cent, of ductility. Weaving with a warp mixed 
of these three materials, we shall find that the silk 
threads show the greatest, and the cotton threads the 
smallest number of breaks, /;/ conplctc opposition to 
their ductility! 

That ductility is a defect rather than an advan- 
tage appears well known in other industries. I have 
seen price lists of steel-works accentuating the fact 
that the ductility of their steels diuiinishcs with their 
better qualify. 



108 S E R I V A L O R 

But experience has proved that yellow silks in 
general are more tensible and nevertheless they are of 
better quality than white ones, and I must explain this 
apparent contradiction to my theory. 

The reasons for this phenomenon are : 

a. Humidity is contained chiefly in the sericin and 
much less in the fibroine. Raw, yellow silks therefore 
contain, under the same conditions, more humidity than 
white ones, and consequently are more tensible. (In 
boiled oft silks this difterence does not exist, and they 
are also much less tensible.) 

b. The tensibihty is proportional to the diameter ; 
irregular silks therefore show greater differences in 
tensibility. This latter quality w'ould allow then to 
judge the regularity of the thread — but in such an un- 
certain and inconstant way, that it cannot be of any 
avail. We have explained in the third, fourth and hfth 
chapters the on!}- reliable way of judging regularity. 

Some manufacturers prefer tensible warps for the 
reason that these become longer in the finish and so 
appear profitable. This reasoning is absolutely wrong. 
The tissue becomes narrower by as much as it becomes 
longer, and so its surface contains the same number of 
square inches as before ; but at the same time it be- 
comes by 10-15 per cent, less lustrous and therefore 
less valuable. To every finisher ought to be given the 
strict order not to lengthen the tissue even by one inch, 
and if it is possible to find one, who fulfills this desire, 



S E R I V A L O R 



109 



it will turn out that a not lengthened warp of organzine 
lT/19 yields a finer "satin trame cotton" than a length- 
ened one with the same number of threads of size 
19/21. 'Trobatiun est!" 

In consequence of the reasons expressed in this 
chajner. we have abandoned long ago the testing for 
ductility (which in 1904 we considered still impor- 
tant, like everybody else) and we presume that after 
some time we shall do the same with "tensile strength," 
which will be the object of the next chapter. 





ClLMTKK X 

T E N S I L J : S r R E N G T H 

IT IS natural to test the consistency of a body by try- 
ing to separate its molecules, and to judge of its 
strength from the force necessary for this separation, 
l^ut, of course, such a test can be decisive only if it 
is trying the nialerird in the same way as the latter 
is tried when ])ractically emjiloyed, and the testing of 
friction would be of as little avail for the cable of a 
c-d)U--rai!way, as that of tension would be for a car- 
wheel. 

Ph_\sics, therefore. (U)es not speak of "'strength" 
in general, but of resistance against pressure, friction, 
tension, etc.. and carefully avoids concluding from one 
of these qualities to the other. 

P)Ut this is what we are doing by testing the tensile 



SERI VALOR 111 

strength of silk, while on the loom it is exposed to 
strong friction, but next to no tension, and we make 
the thing worse by testing the wrong way. 

Nobody will demand a thread of size nine that 
it should possess the same tensile strength as one of 
size eighteen of the same bale ; Ijut neither can we 
claim this of size lo.i) in comparison with 14.1. Con- 
sequently it is of no use to declare, as it is done now, 
that twenty threads drawn from a certain bale show 
an average tensile strength of fifty grams, // the siac 
of these t'ccenty threads is not fixed at the same time. 
Nor can we exi)ect that by a kind hazard that these 
twenty threads will represent the average size of the 
bale, when wc know that neither ;:^()0, nor •^,000, nor 
even 20,(H)() threads are sufficient, but that 90,000 
meters of Icngtli are re(|uirpd for this ])urpose. 

It is necessary, therefore, to size the tested 
threads, that is to say. to measure and weigh them ex- 
actly, and, as their weight is altered by humidity, to 
establish their absolute weight. 

This can be done only by means of a highly 
sensitive balance mounted on a drying-stand. But, as 
the balance is influenced by the warm air rising from 
the latter, when the weight is very light, it is necessary 
to test a great lumiber of threads, viz., some hun- 
dreds, better a thousand, of them, and this lakes up 
very much time on the usual dynamometers. 

Tn order to ex])ress the result of the testing bv 



112 S E R I V A L O R 

one single number, the employed power is represented 
not by the weight, but by length in kilomeiers, and 
called "breaking length." The sui)position is that the 
thread is let down into a great depth until it is broken 
by its own length ; in reality, of course, the weight 
necessary for breaking it is transformed into length ; 
the formula is : 

W 

BL = 

lOS 

9 
in which B L = breaVciiig' length, W:= weight, S := size. 

However logical seems this method, it is far from 
expressing the real resistance of a material against all 
destructive influences. 

We become aware of this fact by comparing the 
average breaking length of various threads with each 
other; it is for wool about five (kilometers) ; cotton, 
fifteen; flax, twenty; liemj), twenty-five; silk, thirty- 
five. 

According to this, silk ought to be the most re- 
sistant of these materials. But as we know that it 
is far from being so, we recognize that there must be 
a logical error either in the definition itself or in the 
way it is ascertained. 

We >hall see that it is the case with both. 

Still more unsuitable appears the establishing of 
the breaking lengths, if we compare those of textile 
threads with those of similar forms in other materials. 



SERIVALOR 113 

Steel wire. f. i., has a tensile strength of 120 kilo- 
grams to the transverse section of one millimeter 
square, and as its specific gravity is about eight, its 
breaking length is 

] 2,000 

=15 

8 X 1.000 

that is to say, not even half that of the silk thread! 

Nevertheless, everybody will justly consider a 
wire rope as infinitely safer for a cable-railway than a 
silk rope. 

Considering, however, the three materials: silk, 
cotton, steel, with regard to their resistance against 
friction, we learn that steel surpasses the other two 
many thousand times, while cotton is still consider- 
ably more resistant than silk. By this we see that the 
testing of friction is by far a truer exi)ression of the 
molecular consistency than the deceptive breaking 
length. 

On the other hand, the testing of steel wires 
with regard to their tensile strength gives valuable 
results ; why are they wrong onlv in our case? 

Oil account of the ductility of the silk thread. 

In testing tensible materials, the time of their 
exposure to tension is decisive, while the instruments 
actually in use, the dynamometers are completely re- 
gardless of time. 

A steel wire that will break under a weight of 



114 SERI VALOR 

120 kilograms will resist for weeks a weight of 
110 kilograms, because it is nearly not tcnsible; but a 
silk thread breaking under sixty grams will break also 
under thirty grams if to these thirty grams is allowed 
the time necessary for extending the thread. The 
sixty grams are wrongly indicated by the dynamo- 
meter, because it made the thirty grams increase too 
rapidly, and before we had time to recognize that 
they would have sufficed to break the thread. 

But while the dynamometer makes a rapidly in- 
creasing weight act only for seconds^ the loom will act 
the opposite way : it exercises a slight tension dur- 
ing a long time (several weeks) and every bit of the 
thread receives on its way from the warp-beam to 
the cloth-beam about 6,000 jerks, which, though each 
of them lasts less than one-half second, sum up to a 
considerable time : about an hour. 

Seeing, then, how fundamental the difference is 
between the practical work and the testing instru- 
ment, we need not wonder that the indications of the 
latter are of no avail, even if the instrument itself be 
exact, which a pendulum-dynamometer cannot be, as 
the pendulum very often receives a swinging start at 
the decisive moment, which makes wrong results 
appear. 

It is possible to correct these to a certain degree, 
but it requires a skillful and experienced hand to do 
so. The same with other difficulties, f. i.. that any 
difference in humidity influences the tensile strength. 



S E R I V A L O R 115 

while it is impossible to bring the thread to a stand- 
ard humidity. This must be overcome by calculating 
corrections for each occurring degree of humidit)' (6 
to 14 per cent.), by no means easy work. 

Having finally succeeded in establishing, out of a 
long series of correct breaking lengths, the values of 
B (best) and W (worst), we are puzzled by the fact 
that the best results are given by white silks, while 
we know from experience that yellow silks are of 
superior (juality. as is also confirmed by the testing for 
cohesion. Also this contradiction can be explained, 
but it would lead too far to follow the long way neces- 
sary for this jnu'pose. 

The final result of our researches is: Excellent 
breaking length is only a proof that the thread was 
well stretched in reeling (fourth rule), whicli, how- 
ever, is not sufficient for producing a reall_\- excellent 
thread ; the essential condition for the latter is good 
cohesion, which can be arrived at only by observation 
of the ninth spinning rule. 

If, therefore, a silk thread shows: 

a. Good breaking length and bad cohesion, the 
first is to be considered as deceptive. 

b. Breaking length and cohesion of the same de- 
gree ; then the former is superfluous. 

c. Bad breaking length and good cohesion ; only 
in this case the breaking length would become inter- 
esting, for reasons to be explained in the next chai)ter. 



116 



S E R I V A L O R 



But it seems that this case does not occur ; at least 
as far as our experiences go. If further experiments 
should prove that it never appears in reality (and it 
is hardly conceivable by what class of cocoons or what 
method of spinning it should be brought about) we 
shall abandon the testing of tensile strength as we 
have abandoned that of ductilitv. 





Chapti.k XI 
THE R E S U L r A X T 

WE IIAV1-: now tested all the various forms of the 
original defect of silk, the bale is completely 
analyzed, and having examined the seven indications 
of Degrees Serivalor, the buyer cannot be in doubt 
any more for which ])ur])ose the l)ale may or ma\' not 
be employed. 

Thus the technical side of the (luestion is solved, 
but not its commercial side, l-'or the seven hgures of 
S' are often in contradiction to each other, and in 
order to express the commercial value of tlie bale, to 
.say whether it is "extra or "first order," etc.. it is 
neces.sary to reduce those seven ligures to one. which 
we call the "resultant." 

At the first glance this seems verv easil\- done 
by taking the average of the seven comjionents. But 
supi)osing an extreme case. f. i.. that the components 
were: 1, 1, 1, ], ]•, ], 10, they would give the average 
of 2.20, that is to say, a bale that is extremelv l)a(l in 



118 SERIVALOR 

one regard (f. i., flocks S° 10) would turn out as 
Resultant 2.3 nevertheless, viz., as "Extra." It is evi- 
dent that this would not do. 

Proceeding on this line, we soon find out that the 
loom is sensible only to the bad qualities, accepting 
the good ones as granted, just as a man whose one 
tooth aches does not heed the fact that his other teeth 
do not ache. 

Xow we are tempted to jump to the opposite 
extreme and to say: A bale which shows S" 10 only 
in one regard, must be designated by Resultant 10. But 
then we must ask ourselves : Is such a bale really of 
the worst quality possible, as would be expressed by 
Resultant 10? What would then remain lor the fol- 
lowing cases : 

1. 1, 1, 1, 1, 10, 10, or 

1, 1, 1, 1, 10, 10. 10, and so on, up to 

10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 

which last exami)le only would represent the worst pos- 
sible quality, from which the others must be dis- 
tinguished by their Resultant? 

Reflecting on the matter we arrive at the con- 
clusion that the influence of each of the single degrees 
on the Resultant must be pro])ortionately the greater, 
the worse this degree is. The mathematical way in 
such cases is to divide the sum of "powers" by the 
arithmetical sum of the degrees. There remains to find 
out which i)ower should be employed : various experi- 



S E R I V A L O R 119 

ments have proved that only the second power can 
be right, and consequently we employ this one. 

Considering that there can hardly exist a bale of 
silk that would get S° 1 on each of the seven points 
of testing, we see that Resultant 1.0 will never occur. 
In fact, degree 1..") is practically the best and very 
rarely occurring Resultant. On the other hand, degree 
10.0 is nearly impossible as well, and Resultant 9.5 
is practically the worst that exists. 

Between l..~) and 9.5 lay eighty tenths of degrees, 
which with regard to their "constancy" (see next chap- 
ter) are reduced to forty, and by this we are arrived 
at the fort\- qualities of which we s])oke in the Pros- 
pectus. How to calculate the commercial value of 
these forty qualities will be ex])lained in another chap- 
ter. Here we follow with a table showing the relation 
of the usual designations of "Extra," "Classical." 
"first order," etc., to the degrees of the Resultant. Be- 
tween "]^,xtra" and "Classical" there is a considerable 
difference in price. In the following table resultant 2.5 
is still -Extra." while 2.6 is "Classical." The real dif- 
ference in value, however, between 2.6 and '2.o is not 
greater than that between 2.5 and 2.4, or 2Ai and 
2.T. etc. 

The degress of Resultant indicate, therefore, as 
will be explained in one of the next chapters, the real 
commercial value which is not ex])resscd by the names 
of the "chops" even if they are genuine, which is not 
alwavs the case. 



120 



S E R I V A L O R 



In order to deserve their designations, the ''chops 
must not receive a worse degree of Resultant than 
indicated in this table : 

Resultant 

up to So 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 S.5 9.0 9.5 

Europe: Extra Classical 12 3 

Cliiiia: K.\tra 1 2 3 

Double 

Japan: E.xtra Extra 1 1 ll!/i 1^ 1^-2 2 2^ 

Canton: Extra 12 3 





Chapter XII 

THE CONSTANCY OF THE DEGREES 
SERIVALOR 

As KAcii of the seven Serivalor testings is based 
on other facts and other methods, the "Constancy" 
of their results cannot be the same. The differences, 
however, are not great enough to make it neces- 
sary to estabh"sh a special table for each of them. It 
will be sufficient to state the average constancy as 
follows : 

If a hundred testings of the same bale would give 
the average of S' ;5.() in one of the seven items, then; 



about 20 of 


these tcstinj^s will yive 


S" :;.() 




.iO •' 




0.1 above or l)clo\v 


1.-) " 





•■ 0.:{ 


.. 


10 " 




■• 0.4 


" 


The Re 


sultant is still more 


constant. 


Under the 



same suj)posilion, of a hundred testings: 



122 S E R I V A L O R 

25 will give 5° 3.0 

50 " " " 0.1 above or below 

25 " " " 0.2 " 

The average uncertainty of the resultant is therefore 

25 X — 50 X 0.1 — 25 X 0.2 



= so 0.1 



100 

which deviation occurs as often toward one side as 
toward the other, so that it appears neutraHzed. 

It is better, nevertheless, to reckon with at least 
half of this uncertainty and to keep in mind, there- 
fore, that Resultant 3.0 might be considered as being 
also 2.95 or 3.05. By this the gradation of eighty 
tenths of degrees, set forth in the last chapter, is re- 
duced to forty, corresponding each to a difference in 
value of about five cents, as said in the Prospectus. 

The question of value will be treated more ex- 
plicitly in the following chapters. 





Chapter XIII 

THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE 

MERCANTILE AND THE REAL 

VALUE 

'T^ifESE two generally are considered as identical, but 
-'- . they are so only for the reeler and the dealer and 
not for the manufacturer. 

To those who are producing or buying silk, 
the "real value" is given by the possibility of sell- 
ing with proht, and as this possibility is dependent on 
the cost-price, the "real value" is fotuidcd on the latter. 
It is different with the manufacturer, who can sell 
only after having produced a new article of the raw 
material ; for him the possibility of selling with profit 
is dependent on the fact whether the new article is 
well made or not. Here, then, the "real value" is 
connected with the way in which the material is 
adai)ted for its purpose and with the final result it 
l)roduces ; the "mercantile value," that is, the cost-price, 
is of secondary importance. 



124 S E R I V A L O R 

For example : In order to produce a good and 
comparatively cheap plush I must employ for the pile 
a glossy and well-covering material. 

The best in this regard are "Bengal" and 
"Canton,'' and consequently they have the greatest 
"real value" for me, much greater in this case than 
"Italian Extra," f. i., although the "mercantile value" 
of the latter is much higher. Only after having re- 
solved to buy one of the said sorts, I begin to take 
interest in their "mercantile value." For though in 
this case their "real value" exceeds that of Italian 
"Extra" I would not pay for them the same price, of 
course, knowing that 1 can Ijuy them much cheaper. 
On the other hand, having to produce a Grege-Otto- 
man with forty-five splits, four threads to the centi- 
meter, the "real value" of "Canton" is naught, as it is 
absolutely unfit for this purpose ; but its "mercantile 
value" remains unaltered because of this. 

The mercantile value of silver is subject to great 
changes, while that of gold remains rather constant ; 
])ut their "real value" would be naught on a desert 
island, where some dates could preserve my life and 
therefore would represent the greatest "real value" for 
me. Hence follows : 

I. The "mercantile value" of silk results from 
the comparison of its (|uality to its price; its "real 
value" from the com|)arison of its quality to its em- 
ployment. 



S E R I V A L O R 



125 



2. Those who are ignorant of this employment 
(reelers, throwsters, dealers) are unable to know the 
"real value." 

3. A testing system that establishes Quality al- 
lows the fixing of the "mercantile value," and, in- 
directly, also of the "real value," which, however, 
differs according to how the material is employed. 





ClIAPTI.R XI\' 

THE MERCANTILE VALUE 

THE mercantile value of an article whose price 
changes daily can, of course, he indicated only 
relatively, that is to say, in the following way : A 
hale whose Resultant he, f. i., 4.5, is w^orth X per 
cent, more than the day's quotation for Resultant 5.5 
(Japan 1 1/"-^). This X in reality is equal to 5 per 
cent., that is to say, each degree of Serivalor is equiva- 
lent to 5 per cent. With the aid of the following tahle 
the worth of each Resultant can be calculated, after 
having ascertained hy how many per cent, the quota- 
tion of f. i. Japan 1 1/2 differs from the value indi- 
cated by the table for its Resultant 5.5 : $3.TT. 

These prices represent at the same time the aver- 
age ciuotations of the last fifteen years. We see that 
the value of S'^ 4.1 is doll. 1.0 1, that of S" 4.3 doll. 



S E R I V A L O R 137 

4.00 ; the intermediate two-tenths of a degree are to 
be considered only as one with regard to "Constancy" 
(see Chapter XII j the value of which is four cents, 
as stipulated in the Prospectus. 

RELATIVE MERCANTILE VALUE OF THE RESULTANTS, IN 
DOLLARS. 

(Tenths of Degrees.) 



)eg. 


.0 


.1 


.2 


.3 


.4 


.5 


.6 


. 1 


.8 


.9 


1.. 












4. 58 


4.56 


4.54 


4.52 


4.50 


2.., 


..4.47 


4.45 


4.42 


4.40 


4.38 


4.36 


4.34 


4.32 


4.30 


4.28 


3.. 


..4.26 


4.23 


4.21 


4.19 


4.17 


4.15 


4.13 


4.11 


4.09 


4.07 


4.., 


..4.05 


4.04 


4.02 


4.00 


3.98 


3.96 


3.94 


3.92 


3.90 


3.89 


5.., 


..3.87 


3.S5 


3.83 


3.81 


3.79 


3.77 


3.75 


3.73 


3.71 


3.69 


6.. 


..3.67 


3.05 


3.64 


3.62 


3.60 


3.59 


3.57 


3.55 


3.54 


3.52 


7.. 


..3.50 


3.49 


3.47 


3.45 


3.44 


3.42 


3.40 


3.3S 


3.36 


3.35 


8.. 


..3.33 


3.32 


3.30 


3.29 


3.27 


3.25 


3.24 


3.22 


3.21 


3.19 


9.. 


..3.18 


3.16 


3.15 


3.13 


3.12 


3.10 











The great difference in value between, f. i., 
Resultant 4.0 and 1.5 might call forth the question 
whether this difference is justified by the conditions 
of production. The answer to this question is not 
quite simple, it is, directly, no, indirectly, yes. 

From the direct point of view, that is to say. con- 
sidering the higher costs resulting from the better 
quality of cocoons and the greater care of spinning, 
the price of "Extra"' appears exaggerated. The 
reeler, however, does not know his own cost-price. It 
is bv no means easv to calculate, neither is the reeler 



128 SERIVALOR 

very much interested in it, seeing that his selhng price 
is not dependent on his cost-price but on the quota- 
tions of the market. This makes nearly all reelers 
conceive the strangest ideas about their cost-price, and 
there are not two among 100 of them who would agree 
on this point. After long studies the author has 
come to the conclusion that from the changing wages, 
price of coal, and worth of the residual products, there 
might be calculated an average of lire Jj.OO to the 
kilo (twenty-five cents to the pound) for wages and 
general costs, if the selling expenses are not too high, 
that is to say, if the reeler does not, f. i., keep a 
special office in Milan for selling a small i)roduction, 
or if he has not to pay too high interests to the 
Commissioner for the advancing of money for buying 
cocoons. 

In order to tind out the ditlerence between the 
cost and the selling-price, it is necessary to compare 
the averages of the quotations of cocoons on the one 
hand, and of silk on the other, during a long period. 
This difference gives the selling price of the reeler's 
work, viz., what costs him lire ."l.OO. This selling price 
was, on the average of the last 10 to 15 years, lire 3.50, 
that is to say, the average gain of the reeler, who is 
exposed to a thousand risks and perils, was up to 
1914-15, 50 centesimi to the kilo, that is four cents 
to the pound. If we consider that the Italian reelers, 
whose number is about a thousand, had paid the crop 
of 1914 about K5 millions of lire, and that, by the 



S E R I \^\ L O R 129 

collapse of prices caused by the great war, they have 
lost at least thirty millions, we must acknowledge 
that in general they are not in an enviable condition. 

And now we are arrived at the "indirect" side of 
the question, whether the high price of "Extra" is 
justihed. 

The great majority of Italian reelers get on with 
but small capital, slight credit, at times high interest, 
and have no constant customers. They do spinning 
for stock, and as thc\' cannot obtain good prices, as 
nobody would give them credit for producing "Extra," 
even if they did so, they are always working at great 
speed, trying to arrive at a high production under any 
condition, that is to say, they are producing qualities 
of Resultant 4.0 to 5.5, while many among them would 
be able to produce Resultant 2.0 to 3.5, if buyers 
would only allow them one to two lire more to the 
kilo (eight to fifteen cents per pound). 

Nay, they are not only as able to sj)in as ex- 
cellent silk as the most famous "Marca" reelers, but 
they are in better condition to dtj so, as they quite gen- 
erally manage their estal)lishments themselves, to- 
gether with wife and children, while the "Marca" 
reeler generally lives in Milan, rarely visiting his 
establishments and completely relying on his staff 
for their managemeiu. 

Thus we see, on the one hand, a majority of hard 
working people who are scantily recompensed for their 
labor, on the other, a small minoritv of wealilu" men 



130 SERIVALOR 

who are independent enough of the market that they 
can refuse to sell if the prices of the day allow them 
too small a prolit. They consequently demand not 
only the advance of one to two lire justified by their 
higher costs (some of them believe this difference to 
be twice as great), but they claim also the legitimate 
profit of their tiresome and risky work, of which the 
small reeler is robbed by his helpless position. 

In this indirect way we come to the conclusion 
that the higher price of the better (jualities is not 
unjustified. 

In spite of this it is ])ossible for the dealer or the 
manufacturer to buy good silks at a price only from 
one to two lire higher than that of "1st order" if, 
recognizing the rceler's ])()siti()n, he will treat him 
cleverly and benevolently, and also allow him the few 
weeks necessary for improving his products with the 
help of a good testing establishment, and if, after 
having arrived at this point, he keeps him constantly 
occupied w'ith his orders, so that he may not be com- 
pelled to work on stock again. 

It is necessary, moreover, not to change too 
often the sizes ordered, and not to demand a size 
which the reeler cannot produce, because the cocoons 
reared in his neighborhood do not yield it. The richer 
reeler is able to defend his interests in this regard and 
does not accept a size, for which his cocoons are not 
fit ; the poor one is often compelled to give in. His 
cocoons have, f. i., a "bava" of 2.8, and he knows 



SERIVALOR 131 

that five of them yield a good l'^/\i^. Now the buyer 
orders i;5/l-^ : instead of refusing the order he arranges 
a way of spinning and gives the order to com- 
bine three big and two small cocoons, that is to sa}-. 
he deliberately acts against the second spinning rule, 
and the result is bad silk. Another expedient lor him 
would be the well-known twofold sizing, but also this 
is less practicable I'or him, because he cannot run the 
risk of having the l^ales refused if the trick should 
once fail. 

Finally the buyer must not induce the reeler to 
speculations, demanding of him to accept orders on 
long delivery in a moment when prices arc low. The 
rich reeler is leading a continual war in this respect 
with his buyers, a war which in the course of \ears 
brings about as many victories as defeats for both 
parties, but wliich embitters them both. In the end 
both of them have hit it as often as not, and the out- 
come of the long silent fight is that neither has won 
anything. P)Ut in the rich reeler the buyer at least 
has a solvent o])ponent who can i)ay when he loses ; 
but what can he claim from a ]:)oor man? If he has 
succeeded in enticing him to accei)t a disadvantageous 
contract, he only compels him to buy bad cocoons, 
in order to save himself from ruin, if possible, and 
consequently to produce bad silk. The latter will be 
recognized as such by a reliable testing establishment, 
but it has not become better for this. The buyer 
has the right to cover himself on the reeler's expenses. 



132 S E R I V A L O R 

but it is a hard thing to obtain payment of the dif- 
ference from a man of scanty means. 

The right way of concluding contracts is to base 
them on the official quotations, for instance : The 
reeler nuist deliver a (|uality not worse than Re- 
sultant '3.0 ; the price to be paid is calculated by the 
average quotations for "1st order" of the last three 
months preceding the day of delivery, with an ad- 
vance of 1 to 2 lire. 

An\l)()d\- who will com])are the prices of his 
purchases of the last five years, f. i., with those he 
would have obtained by this method, will find that 
on the average he would have paid less. He would 
have saved himself the trouble of hitting the right 
moment and all the excitement connected with this 
system, and instead of the usual dift'erence of three 
to five lire between "Extra" and "1st order," he 
would have paid only one to two lire. 

There are very important manufacturers who 
have been bu}ing according to this system for many 
years, and they evidently find it profitable, for they 
stick to it. 

If the 'advantages of an absolutely reliable test- 
ing system are great with regard to the Mercantile- 
Value, they are still more so with regard to the 
Real Value, which will be the subject of the next 
chapter. 




Chaptkk X\' 

THE REAL VALUE 

n^iiE author is not infornied in regard to the 
-*- American wages for winding, and heing driven 
into exile by the war, it is at i)resent impossible for 
him to get exact information. He will therefore try 
an average calculation. 

Suppose a winding-girl working with forty reels 
at a speed of 150 yards the minute, and arriving at 
(K) per cent, effective production, is i)aid sixty-rive 
cents for ten hours of work; she will produce 1540 
grammes of ]:)/15 in ten hours, and consequently the 
wages would be ecjual to twenty cents per pound. 

In no case can this supposition diff'er far enough 
from the actual to seriously aft'ect the following con- 
clusions. 

Generally there are : The wages per lb. for warp- 
ing arc 5l/> times those for winding; the wages per 
11). for weaving are 10 times those for winding, and 
the general expenses, including selling expenses, twice 



134 S E R I \' A L O R 

the wages for weaving. So we have : Winding 20 
cents, warping 5U cents, weaving $2, general expenses 
$4 per pound. All these wages and expenses ought 
to rise and fall in inverse proportion to the produc- 
tion, that is to say, if the material yields to a double 
production the wages ought to be reduced to a half. 

With daily pay this reduction is brought about 
automatically, but with piece-work the adaptation is 
not quite so easy, and therefore we will leave this 
factor aside for the present. But doubtlessly the re- 
duction is brought about in the general expenses, and 
these will be diminished therefore by twenty cents per 
pound if the production is increased by 10 per cent. 

Now it is ascertained by experience that an in- 
crease of the production by 10 per cent, is caused by 
employing, for the same article, a quality of silk (raw 
or organzinc) by one degree of Resultant better than 
the one employed before, as, f. i., Resultant 3.0 in- 
stead of 4.0. 

Therefore tJie Real Vahie of one degree of the 
Resultant is, by diminishing of general expenses alone, 
about tzi'enty cents. 

Besides there ought to be also gained, in the 
course of time, three-quarters of the difference in 
wages for piece-work, while the last ({uarter ought 
to go in favor of the workmen. For by the constant 
employing of good silk also the wages for piece-work 
may l)e reduced without complaint of the workmen, if 
the thing is done l)enevolentl\-, that is to say, in a way 



S E R I V A L O R 135 

that at the end of the year the weavers have earned 
more than before. This can be easily brought about by 
the said system especially on the occasion of fixing 
the wages for new articles. It is true that it can 
be correctly done only if the wages are calculated 
"a i)riori" quite justly and exactly, a task to which 
not all managers are equal. Perhaps that later on I 
shall publish a system of such calculations. In my 
own experience as a manager the results were : 

After three years, and after having reduced the 
135 hand-looms of the establishment to twenty- four, 
the general expenses were diminished by $10,000 
(^17 per cent.) while the average gain of the hands 
was increased from $!)5 to $110 yearly (=16 per 
cent.) and the yearly production of each loom was 
raised from 3,000 yards to 4,500 yards (= 50 per 
cent.) with a greater proportion of good (jualities. 
Each of the 20,000 pieces produced was diminished in 
cost by $1.50 for wages and general expenses, in com- 
parison with those of three years before, the wliole 
profit amounted therefore to $30,000. 

It is true that this success may be ascribed to the 
circumstance that the whole organization was rather 
imperfect, so that there was occasion for many im- 
provements. lUit the facts set forth here ])rove that 
two objects ap]:)arently opposed to each other may 
be obtained at the same time. 7'ic., diminishing of 
wages for piece-work, and increasing the workmen's 
era in. 



i;JG S E R 1 V A L O R 

It is evident that the workman does not consider 
how many cents he gets to the yard but only what 
his pay is at the end of the week. 

In this regard I had two experiences : When I 
took up the management every technical improvement 
was considered as a hostile act ; long years of suffer- 
ing under narrow-minded management had taught the 
workmen that every change aimed at a diminution of 
their earnings, and consequently they had to be com- 
pelled into every reform or improvement. On the 
contrary, when I had been there for two years, I 
might have proposed to the men a diminution of wages 
by 10 per cent., and they would have accepted it 
readily, knowing very well that every change meant 
an increase in their earnings. 

Regarding the relations between manager and 
workmen many things may have changed in the mean- 
time in Europe, and it might have been different in 
America all along, but the fundamental conditions of 
the struggle for life are the same everywhere, and 
therefore from what I said before there results, that by 
employing the degree of Resultant which with in- 
creased speed yields the most efficient production, the 
better degree must turn out to be the cheaper, in 
spite of the fact that it costs more to the pound. 

TJiits tJic Real Value of a degree of the Result- 
ant might be estimated as: 20 cents, and ^ of twenty- 
seven cents = 30 cents; hut for prudence sake zve zvill 
say twenty-five cents. 



S E R I V A L O R 137 

Of course the advantage can be obtained only if 
the speed of the looms is increased proportionally to 
the better quality of silk and if this higher speed is 
inainfaijicd constantly ; which again is only possible if 
every bale has been thoroughly and exactly classilied 
before. 

It is not indispensable that this classification 
should be done by the Serivalor-system, if it is only 
exact and constant ; but in this case it will needs fol- 
low the principles set forth in this publication. 

There is another advantage of a just and im- 
])artial testing system, which 1 might call the prophy- 
lactic one. Just as everybody will prefer remaining 
well to being cured, it is better to receive a good quality 
than to be compensated afterwards for the loss on a 
bad one. 

The rceler who knozcs that he is under control will 
in most cases produce good silk. Although he can- 
not be quite sure of the quality of his product, he, 
and especially his working people, who very soon be- 
gin to feel the control, are able to eliminate, by care 
and attention, nine-tenths of the causes of bad pro- 
duction. 

Hut in order to arrive at this, it is necessary that 
the testing should be performed by an impartial es- 
tablishment, that is to say, neither by the bu\ers nor 
by the reelers themselves. 

The two parties would hardly agree, especially 
in times of great fluctuations of i)rices, and they would 



138 S E R I V A L O R 

have to refer the matter to an impartial institute, which 
must be maintained by the whole trade, and which 
w^ould be obliged to demand high fees if applied to 
only in cases of dissension. But the moment the public 
institution exists, every ])rivate testing becomes super- 
fluous, and therefore all endeavors to invent testing 
methods which could be emi)loyed by anybody in 
his own house, without studies and without instru- 
ments, are useless, besides that they must needs remain 
unsuccessful, as will be recognized by everybody who 
has followed me so far. 

It may be that many of my readers will be under 
the impression that the clerks of a testing establish- 
ment according to the Serivalor system must be 
learned men or at least a M. A. of an university ; 
nothing of the kind is required, just as it is not neces- 
sary to be a mathematician for using logarithmic 
tables. The collecting of the material and the cal- 
culating of the Serivalor tables required many years 
of work, and their use demands only intelligence and 
attention. 

If private testing were of any use. why is the 
establishing of the weight left to the Conditioning 
Houses? Certainly not because the apparatus is too 
costly or its handling too difficult. A manufacturer 
who bu}s 100,000 kilos of silk yearly pays, in Europe, 
3,000 francs for their conditioning, while the apparatus 
costs only 500 francs and the work may be done by 
anv of the clerks. Nevertheless nobodv thinks of hav- 



SERIVALOR 139 

ing the conditioning done in his own house. How 
much less logical is this for the far more difficult and 
complicated testing of quality ! 

Also the conditioning houses have not yet been 
in existence a long time. I tried in vain to find out 
the day of their origin in Milan, but according to all 
information they cannot be even a hundred years old. 

How was it before? Certainly many people who 
produced silk at that time cheated as much as they 
could by moistening. But no doubt there were also 
honest men who would have preferred fair trade ; these 
and the dealers who were the injured ones in this case, 
must have conceived the idea of an official condition- 
ing institute — an idea the execution of which may have 
met with no small difficulties. 

It were certainl)- not the honest men who opposed 
it — just as to-day there are no honest men who are 
oi)posed to the idea of an official testing institute — but 
finally the thing was carried through, and to-day we 
cannot imagine the silk trade without the conditioning 
houses. 

Doubtlessly it were chiefly the dealers, whose in- 
terests were at stake, who brought about the innova- 
tion. But no immediate interest either of the producer 
or of the dealer demands a change in the testing of 
size and of quality, although they Ix)th would certainly 
profit from a solid and honest basis for the trade, after 
the "Testing House" had been in action for a certain 



uo S E R I V A L O R 

time. But meanwhile they are not so injured by the 
present state of things that they should be in a hurry 
to alter it. They leave the matter to itself and confine 
themselves to proposing little reforms of usages, etc., 
to conferences and congresses. In all these assemblies 
only producers, throwsters and dealers are to be seen 
or heard, but hardly a manufacturer. Among the 
more than 100 members of the International Congress 
of Torino, 1911, there was only one manufacturer; 
America had not even sent a single representative ; 
why this ? 

Because the manufacturer is too much occupied 
with the cares of production and selling to remember 
that the surest profit is that made in buying; and he 
has, as it were, 7io time to defend his interests. 

And yet the reform of the silk trade with regard 
to the testing of Quality and Quantity must be initiated 
by the manufacturer, as it is his interest that is at stake 
in this regard. In the centers of production : Yoko- 
hama, Shanghai. Canton, and Milan, there exist only 
reelers and dealers, but no manufacturers, and it is 
quite natural that the usages established in these places 
are in accordance with the interests of those who made 
them. 

But there is a town where the manufacturers form 
the enormous majority and whose consumption is so 
preponderant that it commands the attention of the 
whole trade. 

What is earnestlv claimed bv New York will be 



S E R I \ A L O R 



141 



accepted by all markets as readily as there ever was 
accepted a just and rational reform, and therefore to 
the author it appears as a duty of the American manu- 
facturers to take the lead in the question of the Reform 
of the testing of Quality and Quantity. 

They may be sure that by doing so they will earn 
the gratitude of their European brethren, and finally 
also of the producers and dealers. 

We have now exhausted our main subject, the right 
valuation of silks. The following chapters will treat 
technical questions in connection with silk, but not wilh 
its value. 





This reproduction from tine original photograph sliows the dif- 
ference hetween spht and unsplit ends. 




Chapter XVI 
LOUSINESS 

DYED silk not rarely shows a Hght-hued clown to 
which was given the appropriate name of "lousi- 
ness." The causes of this defect remained unknown 
for a long time. We shall try to give an account of the 
;respective researches. 

The cocoon-thread is compo.sed of two "elemen- 
tary threads," which on their part consist of countless 
little fibers. For a long time this structure of the ele- 
mentary threads was contested, and even L. Blanc in 
his excellent study (1) has still asserted, with all his 
authority, its homogeneity. But Italian and German 
scientific men continued to furnish new ])roofs to the 
contrary, and finally A. Conte and D. Levrat succeeded 
in proving the fibrillous structure ( "i ) by especially 

(1) Etude siir la secretion de la sole. Annalcs du Lab. 
d'ctudes de la sole. Lyon 1887-88. 

(2) Snr la structure fibrillaire dc la sole. Annales 
1901-02. 



lU S E R I \^\ L O R 

conclusive experiments, so that this question appears 
theoretically solved. 

Weavers may persuade themselves in the follow- 
ing way : Decomposing the warp-threads of a piece- 
dyed stuff under the microscope, we discover, among 
the elementary threads of various size, some which 
distinguish themselves hy their very small diameter. 
Measured micrometrically. their diameters appear as 
1/5 to 1/10 of those of the rest, they consequently 
possess only 1/25 to 1/100 of the hody of ordinary ele- 
mentary threads, and this fact alone must call forth 
reflections about their origin. 

]\Ioreover. in counting the elementar\- threads, we 
find that very often they appear odd-numbered, and 
as the cocoon-thread always consists of two elemen- 
tary threads, we see that one or several of these must 
have been split. Following the thread with the micro- 
scope-needle, we soon arrive at the point where the 
split-off fiber unites itself with its original thread, and 
by this we have the proof of its fibrous structure. 

The photo on i)age 142, taken, by kind permis- 
sion, from a publication of the Laboratory of the 
Stagionatura Anonima ]\Iilan, shows the difterence be- 
tween split and unsplit threads. 

The splitting, however, occurs in raw silk, and 
all defects of the latter consist at least of one intact 
cocoon-thread. It is therefore useless to examine raw 
silk with regard to the question whether it will become 
''lousy" in the dyeing, for this defect is caused solely 



S E R I V A L O R 145 

by split elementary threads. It has nothing to do with 
the quality of the silk, but is a fault of the dyer's. 

Although this defect is as old as dyeing itself, it 
was not before 1806 that it began to be scientifically 
examined. From the studies published on this sub- 
ject by the Laboratory of the Milan Stagionatura 
Anonima under the direction of Professor Gianoli, and 
by Professor Lenticchia of Como, (1) we gather: 

(1) Lenticchia: "Sopra tin niiovo difctto delta seta di 
Bombxx viori." {Boll, di sericoltitra 18 and 25, May, 1S9G.) 

Gianoli: "Intorno alia iinperfecione degli attuali sistenii 
di tintura delta seta." (Bol. d. ser. 6, March, 1898.) 

Gianoli: "Comniunicazione preliminare snlle cause die 
provocaiio la sfilacciarsi detle scte tinte." (Relatione presen- 
tata at 4". Congresso di Bacologia e Sericoltura in Torino 
1S9S.) 

Laboratorio delta Stag. an. Milano: "Intorno al difctto 
di sfilacciarsi di iin filato di seta tinta." {Boll. d. ser. 21 Mai, 
1900.) 

Laboratorio: "Intorno alio sfilacciarsi dcllc scte durante 
Ic operazioni tiniorie." {Boll. d. ser. 10, March, 1901.) 

Lenticchia: "Niiove osservazioni ed csperienae snlla fonna- 
zionc dei fiocchetti nclla seta del filngclto." {Como 1902.) 

Laboratorio: "Appunti allc osservazioni del Prof. Len- 
ticchia." {Boll. d. ser. i:5, April. 1902.) 

Lenticchia: ".Incora snlla formazione dei fiocchetti delta 
seta." {Como, 1902.) 

Laboratorio: ".Incora sui fiocchetti dcllc scte." {Bol. d. 
ser. 30 Nov., 1902.) 

Lenticchia: "S em pre sui fiocclictti dclla seta." {Como, 
1902.) 

Lenticcliia: "Snlla forma, composizione e strnttura del 
filo serico." {Milano. 190;!.) 




Chapter X\'II 
LUSTER AND COVER 

ALSO these two qualities can be judged according to 
the Serivalor system, and our laboratory will do 
the testing on demand ; but, being without connection, 
nay, sometimes even in op])osition to the other De- 
grees Serivalor, they would make appear a wrong 
Resultant, and therefore cannot be comprised in the 
latter. For this reason it would also be useless to 
explain the way of testing them ; it will suffice to giye 
the following general indications. 

The luster of the thread and its capacity to cover 
the tissue are qualities of race and therefore independ- 
ent of the method of reeling. 

They are proportional to each other, that is to 
say, the more lustrous a thread is, the better cover it 
will yield, and vice versa. But the luster of raw silk 
has nothing to do with that shown in the tissue. 

For both qualities the twisting is the decisive 
factor. Therefore, raw silk can be compared only to 
raw silk and thrown silks onlv to others of the same 



S E R I V A L O R 147 

twist, but the comparison must never be done in the 
skein. 

Dyed siuudtancously and treated the same -z^'ay, 
all skeins of razv silk zvill shozv the same luster, and so 
also all skeins of thrown silk of the same twist. 

But even in the tissue the difference between more 
or less histrous silk is diminished : 

(a) The heavier the count, 

(b) The sharper the torsion is. 

More lustrous materials yield a cover of high lus- 
ter in single weaving, and also a more lustrous tram, 
l)ut with an organzine of ooO turns to the meter, the 
difference is hardly perceptible any more. The higher 
luster of the tram will be visible only in light weft 
tissues, and also with single-warp satins the dift"erence 
is more striking in forty splits two threads, than in 
forty splits six threads to the centimeter. 

Under condition of the highest luster (as with 
light-count satins), the relation of the extremes is: 
Fifty threads of S"l have the same lustrous eft'ect as 
seventy-two threads of S"10, of the same size. 

But this does not mean that two tissues woven 
of materials of this proportion would have the same 
aspect. For this it would be necessary that the cover 
should be also equally deep. Silk is diaphanous, and 
the ex]:)erienced eye easily distinguishes the thin, shal- 
low size from the thicker, deeper one. 

Therefore, the proportion established above is 
valid onlv for eft"ects of the surface as dent-streaks, etc. 




ClIAPTKR XV'III 

THE TOUCH 

I.N" GENERAL the touch of the tissue is in inverse pro- 
portion to its hister. and proj)ortional to the S" of 
cohesion of the thread. 

It depends, however, more on the race than on 
good reeling. 

China silk yields a perfect, that is to say, rich and 
at the same time soft, touch ; next to it come : 

Japans; then Toscana and Turkestan. 

Satisfactory in regard to richness of the touch, but 
not to its softness, are: Levante, Gialli puri, Cau- 
casians, Incroci Chinese. 

Of firm, but rather hard and rough touch, are : 
Incroci Giapponesi, Persia. 

Bengal and Canton yield a flabby but smooth 
touch. 

In regard to this quality no gradation of testing 
is established. 




ClIAPTI.R XIX 

THE LOSSES BY PREPARATORY 
PROCEDURES 

(A) IV ill ding: 

The loss by the winding is ]M"oportional to : The 
carefuhiess of the winding-girl ; the circumference of 
the reel ; the degree of Serivalor for winding. 

With a careful girl and a circumference of 1^^ 
meters, the loss is : 

For S" Winding : 

1 2 ;3 I .■) 7 8 10 
Per cent. 0.2 0.1- 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.1 1.6 1.8 2.0 

(B) Cleansing during the icar/^iiig, or throning. 
The losses are not important : 



1.30 SERI VALOR 

For S" Flocks : 

' 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
Per cent. 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.-4 0.5 O.G 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 

Lenticchia is of the opinion that the defect Hes 
in the silk thread ; Gianoh that it is caused by the dye- 
ing. The latter states that flocks occur in every dyed 
skein, but that they remain unnoticed if their number 
does not surpass 150 in 1,000 meters of thread. By 
cautious treatment on bobbins he succeeds in dyeing 
nearly without flocks a small quantity of silk, of which 
the rest has come back "lousy" from the dyer. 

Lenticchia objects that Gianoli's delicate method 
cannot l)c employed by the industry and asks: "Why, 
with the same treatment, one lot of silk becomes 
iousy' and the other not?" He believes the reason to 
lie in the weak constitution of the thread which may 
originate from worms tliat have suffered by disinfect- 
ing vapors. As this method is chiefly used in Italy, 
his sup]:)osition would diminish the value of Italian 
silks. 

Gianoli. on the contrary, proves that Italian silks 
,ire not more subject to this defect than .Asiatic ones. 
Lenticchia acknowledges this fact, but for the rest 
sticks to his opinion, which he sui)ports by new re- 
sults of his studies, viz : 

(1) In the silk thread liable to '"lousiness" the 
fibrin is not only surrounded, but penetrated by the 
sericin. 



S E R I V A L O R 151 

(2) Worms treated with disinfecting vapors pro- 
duce a thread penetrated by the sericin and conse- 
quently gets "lousy" in the dyeing. 

(o) The end of the thread towards the chrysalis 
is flatter and more penetrated by sericin than the rest. 

Of this I wish to remark: 

(a) It is true that microscopic flocks appear in 
nearly all dyed silks, but in order to form a technical 
defect they nmst be visible to the naked eye. Stretch- 
ing a dyed skein so that it forms an even, glossy sur- 
face, and regarding it with his back to the light, one 
discovers the flocks as little i)ale dots. 

Their lighter hue is owing to the small diameter 
of the si)lit-ofl:' fibers which consequently are more 
diaphanous than the unsplit elementary threads. By 
the same optic law the foam of a colored liquid ap- 
pears much lighter than the liquid itself. 

My explanation was accepted later on by Professor 
Gianoli in a lecture given in the Chemical Society of 
Milan. 

(b) To Professor Lenticchia's question, why, 
with the same treatment, some silks become "lousy" 
and others do not, I reply : 

Just on account of the same treatment. If I should 
treat a race-horse the same as I might a pack-horse it 
would perish ; l)ul for this it is not to be considered as 
a degenerated animal. 



152 SERI VALOR 

(c) I have had dyed dozens of bales of ItaHan 
trams without finding fiocks ; but I found them very 
often in white "Levante," and also most of the law- 
suits concerning "lousiness" were caused by white 
silks. According to my experience I must therefore 
consider these silks: (Persia, Turkestan, Brusa) as 
especially Hable to "lousiness," although there does not 
exist a sort which would be quite exempt from this 
defect. 

(d) That fibrin penetrated by sericin is liable to 
splitting appears probable, but I don't believe that this 
penetration is owing only to the causes to which Prof. 
Lenticchia ascribes it, for the Persians do not use dis- 
infecting vapors, and if the spinning of the cocoons up 
to the last bit were responsible for the defect, the latter 
would occur oftener with Italian silks than it does. 

]\Iv assertion that "lousiness" is independent of the 
quality of raw silk was confirmed by the following 
experience: I tried to employ Brusa 12/14 for the 
warp of a satin of forty-five splits, three threads, to 
the centimeter, in order to see whether it would turn 
out very streaky. The winding, warping and weaving 
(width 130 centimeters, KjO strokes to the minute), 
went on regularly, and the piece came back faultless 
from the dyer's. The rest of the bale was employed 
for tram, and this was dyed "lousy" by tzvo important 
dyers. 

Not to mention that the testing of the said Brusa 
had given a good degree of cohesion, its good quality 



SERIVALOR 153 

was made evident by the fact that it could be em- 
ployed for forty-five splits, three threads to the centi- 
meter, a count of reed, for which good Canton is unfit, 
while trams even of the worst Canton may be dyed 
free of "lousiness." 

Seeing, moreover, that the same material did very 
well for piece-dyeing, we come to the conclusion that — 

(1) Raw silk of good quality may be liable to 
"lousiness" nevertheless. 

(2) "Lousiness" is the consequence of a fault of 
the dyer's. 

I tried myself to dye the said tram in the labora- 
tory and succeeded in dyeing it with or without "lousi- 
ness" at will. 

As Prof. Lenticchia had said in his article: "I 
possess a skein of silk; a wreath of laurel to him who 
is able to dye it free from 'lousiness' in the ordinary 
way (that is to say. not on bobbins)," I wrote to him 
to send me the skein, marking it with a sealed string. 
This string would also prevent the dyeing on bobbins. 
(In fact, I am employing sticks.) Prof. Lenticchia 
replied that he did not possess the skein any more, and 
congratulated me on my invention. 

I presume, though, that the dyers know very well 
that the fault is theirs. This supposition seems to be 
confirmed by the fact that I received only one answer 
to the Prospectus of the first edition of my book, in 
which I had announced elucidation on this matter, and 



154 



S E R I \^ A L O R 



which was sent to all the dyeing establishments in 
Europe. As I cannot believe that these establishments 
do not take interest in new publications concerning their 
industry, there is no other supposition left but that 
they did not want to spend money to learn what they 
knew already. 

To sum up : 

There are silks Ti'/z/V//. independent of their quality, 
are more liable to "lousiness" than others; but even 
those can be dyed free of this defect. 





Chapti'.r XX 
THE DIAMETER OF THE SILK THREAD 

THE diameter of the same size is different accord- 
ing to the number of cocoons employed for it. This 
number varies considerably according to the race : Size 
13/15, f. i., may be made of 4, 5, G, T, 8 or even 9 
cocoons (Canton). The differences occurring may be 
calculated in the following way : 

We suppose a silk thread to be composed of four 
cocoon-threads (bava) whose diameter be 1.0 and 
whose weight equally 1.0. If the same size should 
be made of 5 "have," their weight must be 0.8 
(4 X 1-0 = 5 X 0.8) and the diameter will result 
from the equation : 

1.0 : X =|/l.0 : 1/1X8, which gives 
X = 0.9 

In the first case we unite 4 "'have" of diameter 
1.0, which give a smallest diameter of 2.0, while in 
the second case o "have" of the diameter 0.9 are 



15(5 S E R I V A L O R 

united, which must give a diameter of more than 2.0, 
as can easily be seen by anybody who will group to- 
gether 4 and 5 disks of these proportions. In fact, 
the smallest diameter of 5 threads must be 2.34. 

Putting 100 for the smallest diameter possible, we 
have for : 

Cocoons : 4 5 G 7 8 9 

Diameter: 100 117 103 113 115 100 

Another factor of the diameter is the more or 
less complete stretching of the bava, of which the 
quality of the thread is dependent, and therefore it 
might be said in general : The smaller the diameter 
of the thread is, the better its quality; but we have 
seen in the respective chapters how difficult it is to 
judge by these indications. 

Apart from these restrictions, there are two ways 
of finding the average diameter of a silk thread, both 
by supposing the thread to be a cylindrical body and 
consequently having a circular transverse section. 

first method : 

The diameter of homogeneous cylindrical bodies 
can be derived from their specific weight. Accepting 
the silk thread as an homogeneous body, by means 
of the pykometer, 1 found its specific weight to be 
1.2!) to 1.;]0. 



S E R I V A L O R 157 

The diameter (D) of cylindrical bodies being pro- 
portional to the square root of their weight, 



D = X K'"— 

and from the specific weight of 1.3 it results that 
X = 1.0 (expressed in microns := thousands of milli- 
meters). 

(L. Vignon in his "Rechcrchcs sur la densitc de 
la soic' {Annalcs dii Laboratoirc d'etudcs de la sole, 
Lyon, 1889-1890) had established a specific weight of 
0.9 to 1.1 by the mercury method. A year later, by 
immersion into benzine, he found l.;53 to 1.31. Vignon 
rejects the method of the pykometer, as he thinks the 
sericin must be dissolved by the boiling water. I beg 
to object to this, that during the few moments that the 
experiment lasts the solution must be so slight that it 
influences the correct result much less than the fric- 
tion of the skein against the benzine, which diminishes 
the sensibilit}' of the balance. The mere fact that the 
result obtained by my method is smaller than his will 
furnish to every physicist a sufficient jiroof that mine 
must be right.) 

As, however, the silk thread is not homogeneous, 
but a bundle of roundish bodies, X must be greater 
than 10. 

(The transverse section of a cocoon-thread might 
be described as two isosceles right-angled triangles with 
rounded-off' corners joined together. ^Microscopic 



lo8 SERIVALOR 

photos are to be seen in : "Notice siir le laboratoire 
d'etudes dc la soic. Condition des sois, Lyon. Others 
on a larger scale in Prof. Lerjticchia's "Sulla forma, 
composicione e struttnra del filo serico," Milano, 1003). 
Supposing the cocoon-thread to be of cylindrical 
form, X must be at least as much larger than 10, as 
the outward square is larger than the inward circle: 
X : 10 = (2r)- : r- tt 

Consequently, X must be at least 12.7. But, as 
said above, the cocoon-threads are not of completely 
cylindrical but of roundish sha])e, and therefore cannot 
be joined together as tightly as it would be possible 
with cylinders. 

Under the microscope the gaps between them are 
clearl)- visible. (See Chai)ter V'lII. Cohesion.) From 
this results that X must be larger than II), and it may 
be concluded that it cannot be much below 14. 

Second method: 

The diameter of cylindrical bodies might be 
measured directly by joining them together without 
gaps on a fixed length ; in our case, by winding the 
thread around a dark board. If a thread of a certain 
length, in meters, (L) and a certain weight, in tenths 
of milligrams {W) joined together F times, covers a 
certain length in microns (S) on the board, then: 

S 

y vv 

L 



SERIVALOR 159 

The winding of the thread around the board re- 
quires much patience and a certain skill, both of which 
qualities are not rare with weavers. 

After some effort we succeed in joining together 
the threads so that under eightfold linear enlarge- 
ment they showed neither gaps nor doublings. The 
flattening of the threads is avoided by their compara- 
tive hardness. By this experiment we arrive at the 
following figures : 

"Piemont" W z= 35 L= 1.125 S = 1560 F = 20 X = 14.0 

••China" W = 77 L = 1.125 S — 2!500 F = 25 X = 13.8 

"Brussa" W = 22 L= 1.125 S= 900 F = 15 X = 13.G 

'•Bengal" \V = 48 L = 1.125 S = 1820 F = 20 X = 14.0 

"Bengal" \V = 40 L = 1.125 S = 1720 F = 20 X = 14.4 

These being sufficiently in accordance with the 
results of the first method, we may state 

that X = 14. 

(Tn the "Aimalcs du lahorotoirc d' etudes do la 
soic," Lyon, 18SG and 188T-88, are published many 
microscopic measurings of the diameter 'of the cocoon- 
thread. According to these, the value of X oscillates 
between 14 and 20. But. as it is not said whether 
these figures concern the larger or the smaller diam- 
eter, and as moreover the proportion of these two 
changes the more the thread approaches its end, those 
measurings do not aft'ect the results we arrived at.) 

Thus we may establish the following table of 
diameters : 



160 S E R I V A L O R 

Size 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 

Mikron 29.5 33 36.1 39 41.7 44.3 46.7 

Ten thousandths of inch = 

Alikro-inches 11.6 13 14.2 15.3 16.5 17.4 18.3 

Size 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 

Mikron 4S.9 51.1 53.2 55.2 57.1 59 Gl 62.6 

Alikro-inches 19.2 2U.1 20.9 21.7 22.5 23.2 23.9 24.6 

Size 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 

Mikron 64.3 66 67.6 69.2 70.7 72.3 73.8 75.2 

Mikro-inches ....25.3 25.9 26.6 27.2 27.8 28.4 29.0 29.6 

Size 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 

Mikron 76.7 78.1 79.5 80.8 82.1 83.5 84.8 86.0 

Mikro-inches .... 30.1 30.7 31.2 31.7 32.3 32.8 33.3 33.8 

The.se figures are important for the weaver, as 
they indicate the space occupied by the warp-threads 
in the reed. Another table in the chapter concerning 
reeds will sliow the space left by the various reeds, 
and by a comparison between those two we recognize 
the increasing friction of heavy warps and the neces- 
sity of the better cohesion, the more threads are 
pressed together in the diminishing space. 




T 



CiiAPrER XXI 

THE ALTERATION OF SIZE BY 
THROWING. 

iiKRi-: are two factors whicli alter the size during 
the throwing : 



(A) I'hc l)reaking of the thread (hiring the wind- 
ing and the following oi)erations : 

This hreaking generally occurs at the weakest, that 
is to say. thinnest parts of the thread and is followed 
by the removal of a certain length ; the thinner parts 
thus being eliminated, the rest has become heavier in 
proportion to its length. A rough estimate tells us 
that the influence of this factor cannot be great ; it 
mififht be calculated in the following wa\' : 



162 S E R I V A L O R 

The losses by winding and throwing vary, as put 
forth in Chapter XIX between 0.2 and 2%. We will 
suppose in our case, a loss of 1%, the size being 13. 
In a thread of middling Regularity the thinnest parts 
will be of about size 7 ; these parts will chiefly break, 
and their weight being 1%, it resuhs : 

At the beginning a gram contained 092 meters ; 
of these were eliminated 0.01 gram = 13 meters (1 
gram of size 7 containing about 1,300 meters) and 
there remained 0.99 grams = (092 — 13 =) 679 
meters, which is equal to 686 meters to the gram. The 
alteration is then, in our case: 

6 ^ 

= 0.9% 

686 

of which we might derive, as a general rule : 

The thickening of the sice, by elimitiation of the 
thinnest parts of the threads, is equal to the loss, in 
per cent. 

(B) When twisted the thread forms a screw-line 
which of course is no longer than the straight line. By 
following this longer way the thread becomes shorter 
and consequently of heavier size than it was before. 

In order to calculate this thickening of the size 
we must start from the diameter of the thread, for 
which purpose, however, the figures found in the last 
chapter must be somewhat altered. 



S E R I V A L O R 1G3 

It is evident that the natural diameter of a soft 
body must become smaller under the pressure of the 
twisting. This diminution can be ascertained by a 
comparison between the diameters of the single and 
the twisted threads. If there had been no pressure, 
the latter would be (D =: single diameter) 

D J/^= 1.414D 

But it can be ascertained by the second method, 
explained in the last chapter, that it is only 

1.21 D 

Consequently the diminution by pressure is 1/7, 
and in regard to the condition of the twisted thread X 
is equal to 12. 

(This condition resembles that within the mercury 
by which Professor Vignon found the specific weight 
of 0.9 to 1.1, viz., compressed but containing air. It 
was presumable, therefore, that a calculation of the 
specific weight on the basis of X=12 would give a 
similar result. In fact, it is 0.9.) 

My calculations of the shortening by twisting are 
therefore based. on: 

X = 12. 

When two threads are twisted together each spot 
of their .substance describes a curve which might be 
considered as the combination of two screw-lines. On 
the one hand each thread is turning around the com- 



164 S E R 1 V A L O R 

mon axis — and this causes its shortening — on the other 
hand it is turning around its own axis, the consequence 
of which is a stowing, of which we shall speak later 
on. 

D being the diameter of the thread, P the progres- 
sion along the axis during one turn, L the length of 
the screw-line, then 



the shortening (S) : 

S = L — P 
and the thickening of size {T ) in per cent.: 

L — P 



T := 



P 



Consc(|rcntly we have for the twisting of a thread 
size 1 3 : 

(a) Tram, PiO turns to tiie meter: 

P = 8333 microns 
D = 45.6 microns 



L=y 83332 4- (45.G X 3.14)2 _ §334 

S = l 

T = 0.012% 

(b) Organzine 425 turns to the meter : 

P = 2353 S = 1 T = 0.2% 



S E R I V A L O R 165 

(c) Grenadine 1300 turns to the meter: 

P = 7T0 S = 13 T = 2% 

(d) Crepe, 3000 turns to the meter: 

P = 333 S = 30 T = 9% 

Adding to this the thickening by eHmination of the 
thinnest parts, the increase in size, in comparison to 
the original thread, is : 

For Tram ^% 

" Organzine 13^2% 

" Grenadine 3 % 

" Crepe 10 % 

These figures are ahered according to the losses 
in the winding. 

With threefold throwing the increase must be 
the same if the number of turns is rationally fixed. 
This number ought to be in inverse proportion to the 
diameter of the twisted thread, or rather to the square 
root of its weight — the latter being proportional to tlie 
diameter. 

Thus the number of turns (N) for threefold 
organzine of size 13 results from the ccjuation : 

N : |/"26"= 425 : ^SiT 
wliich gives N = 347. 

With this right method the greater shortening — 



166 S E R I V A L O R 

owing to the longer way of the three threads — is bal- 
anced by the smaller number of turns. 

• In order to avoid the stowing of which we spoke 
before, the single thread receives a preliminary turn- 
ing in opposite direction of that of the twisting. But 
this well conceived expedient is turned into a disad- 
vantage if, as it is often the case now, the preliminary 
turns surpass those of the twisting. The stowing 
then occurs the opposite way, the organzine gets a 
granular aspect, becomes less lustrous and covers less 
well. 

Consequently the niunher of preliminary turns 
ought to be equal to that of the twisting. 

We shall now convert the above theoretical knowl- 
edge into such form as will enable anybody to make 
the accounts connected with throwing. 

We call: 

Theoretical size (Th. S.) the product of the multi- 
plication of the raw-size, with the number of threads 
to become united. Hence if we have to throw three 
threads of 11/13 (r= 12) the Th. S. is always 36, inde- 
pendent of the number of turns we give them. 

Of this Th. S. we must always draw the square- 
root ( ^ Th. S.). To this purpose table A has been 
made, which contains the \/ of all numbers from one 
to 200. 

If we divide the number of turns to the meter 

(T) by the j/ Th. S. the quotient we get forms the 



S E R I V A L O R 167 

very distinctive feature of the throwing. We call this 
quotient the coefficient (Co.). Table B shows the 
shortenings of the thread corresponding to the differ- 
ence coefficients. 

Table C shows the coefficients for the usual kinds 
of throwings. 

We arrive from the number of turns to the meter 

to that one to the inch, dividing T with 40 {= — j 

consequently, multiplying the number of the turns to 
the inch with forty, we shall get T. 

(B) Coefficients of thr Giving {Co.) and shorten- 
ings in % of the Theoretical Si::e {Th. S.). 

Co.:... 138 190 237 271 308 341 368 393 417 440 462 483 503 

%■ 1/2 1 V/2 2 2y2 3 3^ 44/2 551^ 6 6^, 

Co.: 522 540 558 576 594 612 630 647 664 680 696 

%: 7 7i/> 8 81^ 9 9>^ 10 10^ 11 11^^ 12 

(C) The usual throwings are the effects of the 
following Coefficients: 

Open, filling tram giving a soft touch Co. = 20 

Hard tram, not filling giving a strong touch Co. = 30 

Open, lustrous organzine for satins Co. =100 

Medium organzine, less lustrous for armures Co. =120 

Hard, lusteriess organzine for tafi^etas Co. =140 

Lustrous grenadine ^ o. =:3()0 

Lusteriess grenadine '..Co. =r2.>0 

Lusterous crepe Co. =400 

]\redium crepe Co. =:500 

Hard crepe Co. =600 



o 
o 



H 



m 

2 
w 

H 

o 

CO 



W 
< 

a 

X 



! C N C^ CC CC_ ■* Tj< tT •« «0 O O O l-_ J> !-_ C» 00 00 Ci O _ O C iH rH 

'>. CO CO re CO ro' cc co r^' c6 ro co co' ro ro ro cc o? co co co -^ ■*"■*' M< tj< 

tOt-GOC50r-IOJfCTj<»OOt-OOC50i-H(MCOTt<l.OOl>00050 
C t^i~-t^l^QOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOiO!OiO:C5C50500>0>0 

TH^T-HrHr-irH^THr-rHrti-lT-i-lr-i-HT-T- — ,-1-11-1-,-HCJ 

C3 ro t- iH o C5 ro t- T-H i-o C5 ro t^ T-i m 00 0} •-;: -* oc ci »ft oi ro 

|C OiCO_CO'*T^Tt<o>.TtO«050J>l>000000©C; CC"— »— ^^(M 

>- W oi W M W oi N N ci CJ ci CJ N oi W CJ ci ci CO re co' r* co' n' CO 

_ i-HOJcoTfinot-oooso^cjro-^inot-oooCi— wco-ri<m 

C liO 'O o >0 i.O >-0 lO lO i.O O «5 cc o o «c «o O ^ O f^ i^ I'- l^ i> t^ 

, cot-iHOo>co5cooo?j«oo'nocot-(rj;c '*oo(Mi>r-(»n 
I C ci c<i CO CO Tj< -^ Tf <n iq o cq i> i--; i-- cc oq C5 cs C O ^_ ^ ci w 

"> iH --I r-J IH T-i rt' r-i t-H ,-H r-' l-J i-H l-i i-i rH rt r-i r-I C^l M /rj" N CI N N 

i-(iHT-li-(,H^^iHi-lTHr-liHiHr-lr-(T-(T-irHTHi-li-i^r-(^^^,-( 

tOt-OOC50>HOJCO-*l.0 5Dl>OOOC— (J-lCO-^tOOt-OOOlO 

C c<lW(MiMrocococococofOcoroco-*i-*<TtiT*<Tt<-^'<*|'*-<f-<!f<o 

OC>oO».'5 0-^OlTj<05'+OOfOOOClt^WCCi-'0 tOO-^OO 

Ir; O'-;'-;M(MC0f0C0T»<Tf<»O»O50«l>l-0000C;C~. ~0-H^ 

"> d s c d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d d c — ' —'-:—' ,h 

_ 'H5<iC0-*l.0Ot-0005OrHIMC0Tt<»ft!0?:~0CCiC»HC<!C0->*<i0 
« OOCOOOOOO'-i'rH^i'-H^T-li-i-Hr-i,— CICIWMCIM 

OJQOCOO-"* lO'HOWl--C000C005'+'Ci-rfc:i,0Ci.0O>-0 
C t^_ l> 00 00_ 05 _ O i-H i-H <M Oi CO CO >*< Tt "O IC C£ u; l^ <» 00 C5 Ci 

~> 00 00 00 00 oo' oi d ci d d d 05 05 o! d d ci d ci d d d d cJ d 

rH 

Ol^OOOOrHoiCOTfllOO^-OOCSC^-r'JCO'fl.OCSt^aOOSO 
C l^t~l--t-QOOOOOOOOOOOOCCCC»0005fflC5CiC><S!CiC5CiC3o 

Tt< ^ 00 "O CI 00 1.0 N 00 >.0 ^ l^ ■* O Ci C-. <-0 i-H J~- CO c: -*i o <n 

~ ^_ OJ CJ CO ■* -^^ i.q ',o « t- 00 00 cv _ c 1-. >-_ c! .-■: rt •-»■■>*< »o o o 

"> t-^ tJ t-' t,' i-J t,' t,; I-.' tJ l-J l^ t-.' t-^ 00 OC 00 OO «" OO' 00 00 00 00 00 oo" 



I _ ^IMCO'*<».OcOt-OOCsO.-llMCO-.*<lOlOt-OOOC^CJr:-*lO 

— o»o«o«rt»nirt>r30o«oo«oooo«ooocsi^i^t-i^i--i^ 






i_,CCC5O00t-«D>rtTt<N OCOTfolOOOOCOCOO^OCO t- 

' *- i^_ w w CO ■*_ 1.0 o t-_ 00 Ci o >-; d CO -* •* o o I- J> 00 Oi o 
^ moo lO >.o' in o o lo' o d d co d d w d d d d d d d t- t^ 



"> r^ 1-1 rH N CJ N W Cl CO CO CO CO CO co' co' -* Tj^' --t Tt Tl" -iji Tt<' Tji ■«!<' o 



1— Ci CO •* 'O CC J^ OC C-. S rH 



S E R I V A L O R 169 

First example : 

Question : What will be the size and the char- 
acter of the thread resulting from throwing 14 ends 
of size 10:55 with 1T0 turns to the meter (= 4% to 
the inch) ? 

Ansiver: (1) Th. S.= (10.55 X 14=) 147.7 den. 

(2) I/UtT = 12.15 (see table A). 
170 

(3) Co. = = 140 

12.15 

(4) Shortening (table B) of Co. 140 = ^% 

(5) Size = Th. S. plus ><% = 147.7+ 0.7 = 148.4 

(6) Character: Hard organzine (table C). 

Second example : 

Question : How many turns to the meter and to 
the inch must I give to the size 9/11 = 10, three 
thread, to become a lusterless grenadine, and what 
will be the final size ? 

Ansii'er: (1) Th. S. = 4 X 10 = 30. 

(2) y^Q~= 5.48. 

(3) Co. for lusterless grenadine = 250. 

(4) T = 5.48 X 250 = 1370 turns to 

the meter = 34 to the inch. 

(5) Shortening = l->4%. 
(6) Final size = 30.5. 



170 



S E R I V A L O R 



Third example : 

Question : With what raw size must I begin, to 
arrive at "Poile" size 16, 2400 T (60 to the inch) ? 

Anszcer: (1) Th. S. = 16. 

(2) \/Ti\ = 4. 

2400 

(3) Co. = = 600 



Counter- proof 



(4) Shortening for Co. 600 = 9%. 

(5) Raw size 16 minus 9fc ^ 14.56. 

(1) Th. S. = 14.56. 

(2) 1/1X56 = 3.8. 

2400 

(3) Co. = = 632 

3.8 

(4) Shortening of Co. 632 = 10%. 

(5) Final size = 14.56 + 10% = 16. 

(6) Character: Hard Crepe. 




Chapter XXII 



THE K I : i: D S 

IT M iGiiT be presumed that there is no mill in which 
the reeds are in perfect order, that is to sav. where 
all the dents are in ri^ht j)ro])ortion to their count. I 
am led to this opinion by the fact that while I was a 
manager I had great difliculty in procuring such 
reeds, seeing how little the reed-makers were used to 
keep strictly to instructions. And 3'et the right size 
of the dents is so important that without accuracy in 
this regard no reliable results may be reckoned upon. 
The friction of the silk against the dents increases 
with the number of threads, as the diminution of space 
produces a pressure, which, as proved by Coulombe, is 
proportional to the friction. 

Therefore it is not indifferent how much space is 
taken by the dents, and the proportion of their size to 
the clear space between them must be taken into con- 
sideration. 



172 S E R I V A L O R 

TABLE OF PROPORTION BETWEEN DENTS IN THE 
CENTIMETER AND IN THE PARIS INCH. 

Dents in the Paris inch : 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 
Dents in the centimeter: 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Sl'^ 

Dents in the Paris inch: 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 
Dents in the centimeter: 33 35 37 39 41 42^:; 44 

Dents in the Paris inch : 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 
Dents in the centimeter : 46 48 50 52 53!.4 55 57 

Dents in the Paris inch: 160 165 170 175 
Dents in the centimeter: 59 61 63 65 

The "No." expresses the number of dents in the 
total size of the % Paris inch (= 67^ Ctm.). Conse- 
quently the size of one dent is : 



No.: 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


40 


41 


42 


43 


44 


Microns: 


193 


187 


182 


178 


173 


169 


165 


161 


157 


153 


No.: 


45 


46 


47 


48 


49 


50 


51 


52 


53 


54 


Microns : 


1.50 


147 


144 


141 


138 


135 


132 


129 


127 


125 


No.: 


55 


56 


57 


58 


59 


(JO 


01 


6:2 


63 


64 


Microns : 


122 


121 


119 


117 


115 


113 


111 


109 


107 


105 


No.: 


65 


66 


67 


68 


69 


70 


71 


72 


73 


74 


Microns : 


104 


102 


101 


99 


98 


97 


95 


94 


92 


91 


No.: 


75 


76 


77 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


83 


84 


Microns : 


90 


89 


88 


87 


86 


84 


83 


82 


81 


80 


No.: 


85 


86 


87 


88 


89 


90 


91 


92 


93 


94 


Microns : 


79 


78^^ 78 


77 


76 


75 


74 


73 


72^ 


1 72 


No.: 


95 


96 


97 


98 


99 


1 00 










Microns: 


71 


701/ 


'2 70 


69 


68'/ 


; 68 











SERIVALOR n3 

By choosing, in this table, the "No." in proportion 
to the number of dents, the reeds might be so con- 
structed that they all have the same clear space, which 
ought to be in the neighborhood of 0.7 Ctm. 

But it is not quite easy to have such reeds made 
by the reed-makers who are accustomed to employ cer- 
tain wires for certain "Xo." thus producing reeds 
whose clear space varies from 4 to (i.^i millimeters to 
the centimeter. They are led by no distinct principle 
in this regard, but simply by the fact that it is more 
convenient for them to fix thicker dents with thinner 
wires than vice versa. 

If a reed with forty dents No. 00 to the centimeter 
is ordered of them, they generally will deliver dents 
No. 70, trusting that they cannot be controlled. This, 
however, is quite easy with the aid of our table, and of 
a slide-gauge indicating 0.1 millimeter, if one orders a 
little bit more of length than wanted and takes off 
5-10 dents, measuring their total size ; or with the help 
of a microscope, without taking ofif any dents. 

If one protests against the "No." not in accord- 
ance with that ordered they will reply that dents No. 
90 are not durable enough, and on the question why 
dents no should be less durable in a reed with 90 dents 
than in one with 50 to the centimeter, they will offer 
other excuses, declaring finally : 'Tt is impossible." 

It is a fact that fine reeds are less lasting, but this 
will keep no manufacturer from employing them, see- 
ing that they furnish a finer tissue. It appears, more- 



m S E R I V A L O R 

TABLE OF CLEAR SPACES 

Dents per ctm. : IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 
m/m 

Clear space, : 70;} 700 697 694 691 G88 685 682 

100 
No. of dents: 41 43 45 47 48 50 51 53 

Dents per ctm.: 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 
m/m 

Clear space : 679 676 673 670 667 664 661 658 

100 
No. of dents: 55 57 58 60 61 62 63 65 

Dents per ctm. : 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 
m/m 

Clear space : 655 652 649 646 643 640 637 634 

100 
No. of dents: 66 68 69 71 72 73 74 76 

Dents per ctm.: 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 
m/m 

Clear space ■ : 6;!1 628 625 622 619 616 613 610 

100 
No. of dents: 77 78 79 SO 81 82 83 84 

Dents per ctm.: 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 
m/m 

Clear space : 607 604 601 .598 .595 592 589 586 

100 
No. of dents : 85 86 88 89 90 91 92 93 

Dents per ctm.: 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 
m/m 

Clear space : 583 580 577 574 571 568 565 

100 
No. of dents: 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 



S E R I V A L O R 



175 



over, that the making of fine reeds with a clear space 
of 0.7 Ctm. offers some difficuhies. Until these are 
overcome we must confine ourselves to calculating a 
series whose clear spaces diminish, with the fineness, 
from 0.7 to 0.565 Ctm. 

Comparing the space demanded by the respective 
warp (see Chapter XX) to that left to it, we find out 
the limit where the w-arp-threads begin to be pressed 
together and therefore are exposed to increased fric- 
tion. From this moment the difficulties increase rapidly 
and the quality of silk must get proportionally better, 
if weaving is to be at all possible. 

On those circumstances is based the table of Chap- 
ter VJIT (cohesion), the result of three years' studies 
and work. 





Chapter XXIil 

soMi HINTS ABOL r POWER \vj;a\ing 

XTo SILK is good enough if the loom is not in perfect 
■^ ^ order. 

While I was still at the inception of my studies 
the results obtained were sometimes apparently con- 
tradicted by experience. A bale of silk which had been 
classified as good under test, jiresented in the weaving 
unexpected difficulties which were sometimes hard to 
overcome. 

But in ninety-nine out of one hundred cases they 
lay in the loom itself, and by finding their origin and 
trying to avoid them thereafter, I was led to establish 
the following rules which are not to be found in weav- 
in<r manuals : — 



S E R I V A L O R 177 

(1) Silk on the way from the winding to the 
weaving should become more humid rather than dry, to 
prevent its shortening. (See Chapter XXIV.) 

(2) The warper should thoroughly clean the 
warp. (See Chapter VI.) 

(13) In tying the silk the knots should be drawn 
sharp. 

(4) The warper should work with the same num- 
ber of reed that the warp will have on the loom. 

(5) Care must be taken to keep every thread in 
its proper crossing. 

(G) The warp should not be beamed under too 
heavy tension. 

(7) The warp beam should revolve easily. 

(8) The tension rope should glide easil)- and with- 
out jerks. 

(9) The whip-roll should kecj) the warj) in lior-i- 
zontal position. 

(10) The harness should be clean, free from 
roughness, and not matted. 



ITS SERI VALOR 

(11) The harness should consist of fine threads. 

(12) Harness knots must not be too thick. 

(13) Too much tightening of the harness should 
be avoided. 

(14) The distance between the harness and slay 
should not be more than two centimeters. 

(15) The first and last shafts should form an 
equally high shed, the whole harness forming as low 
a shed as possible. 

(16) The shafts should change: With light 
count, when the slay is at one centimeter's distance 
from the tissue ; with heavy counts, when the slay 
touches the tissue. 

(17) The reeds should move freely in the frame. 

(18) Reed dents should be made of soft blue steel. 

(19) Dents should be free from rust and too 
much wear. 

(20) They should not be made too tight. 

(21) Nor should they be too voluminous. (See 
Chapter XXII.) 



SERIVALOR 179 

(22) There should not he the slightest scar on the 
shuttle. 

(23) Shuttle points should neither be too sharp 
nor too blunt. 

(24) The bore-hole of the i)ickers should not be 
too deep. 

(25) The picking should be as soft as possible. 

(26) The picking should be effective the moment 
when the crank is at its lowest point. 

(27) The slay's course should not be too hard. 

(28) The slay should touch the warp only at its 
hindermost position. 

(29) The slay should form the same angle with 
the reed as the shuttle shows. 

(30) The oscillation of the slay should not exceed 
eleven centimeters. 

(31) The loom should be so firmly fixed that it is 
not visibly shaken by its operation. 




ClIAFTKK XX I V 

SOAKING 

''I Throwsters have a waste in the course of their 
-■- work which, as we saw in Chapter XIX, varies 
between 1-3 per cent, and 3 per cent., and it ought to 
be allowed to them to put it into account. This natural 
claim was, however, always refused by their customers, 
and the throwsters found an expedient in weighting 
the silk. 

The following table shows the weighting allowed 
in Lyons, if the customer has not made the condition 
"sans charge." The boiling-ofT percentage of raw silk 
is established according to the averages of the essays 
made by the Stagionature Anonima, IMilan, from 1901 
to 1910. 



S E R I V A L O R 181 

Boiling-off per cent. 
Allowed for 

Japan Raw silk. thrown silk. 

(Kakcdah 17.9r)^ 

|Filatiire 18.44f ^^ 

China 

(Filature i8.30| 

|Tsatlee i9.s5( ~- 

Central Asia 21.7.") 22 

Levante 22. 2G 24 

Canton 22.70 25 

Italy 2;il8 26 

Syie 24.77 27 



Averaare o 



1.00 2;{ 



We see that the charge is meant merely as a com- 
pensation for the loss of raw material. Compare this 
with the request made by a throwster of the Laboratory 
Serivalor: "I know how to weight up to 10 per cent., 
but how must I manage to arrive at a greater weight- 
ing?" So far the, soaking, or rather the applying, of a 
mixture of soap and greasy material would be justified 
to a certain degree, but it is hardly comprehensible how 
It could have become an axiom that this procedure is 
useful or even necessary for good winding! 

On the contrary, it is more or less detrimental to 
the quality of silk and not even useful for the winding. 
During the first hour, as long as the skeins are thor- 
oughly wet, the winding, in fact, goes on much easier ; 
after this time, however, the skeins, making about 100 



182 S E R I V A L O R 

revolutions a minute, are completely dry again and the 
threads are sure to stick together much more than if 
they had been "rubbed out" and not soaked ; the conse- 
quences are numerous breaks. If somebody should 
believe that the drying of the skeins can be avoided by 
humid air in the workrooms, I can tell him that this 
is not the case even with 90 per cent, of humidity, 
while already with 75 per cent, all the metallic parts of 
machinery, etc., get rusty. The humidity, in fact, 
should not exceed 70 per cent., as this is sufficient. 

But in which way is the degree of humidity ascer- 
tained at all? Generally by means of a hair-hygrom- 
eter, which, however, does not remain reliable for a 
long time, if not very carefully kept in order and 
moreover controlled by a psychrometer. This latter 
instrument, however, is hardly to be found anywhere, 
and when it exists it is out of order as well and not 
provided with a regulator of the current of air. It is 
a fact, therefore, that in general the real humidity of 
the workrooms is not known and that many theories 
based on this uncertain factor must be wrong. 

It is a very instructive experiment to have a wet 
silk thread wound tightly around a roll of hard paper 
and to have it quickly dried afterwards. The thread, 
lengthened by the winding in wet state, tries to con- 
tract itself to its former length and being hindered by 
the paper roU, simply crushes it. But, of course, it 
cannot crush a wooden bobbin, and the consequence is 



S E R I V A L O R 183 

that it is the thread which must yield, that is to say, its 
molecules will glide along each other, and the thread 
loses much of its strength and has even some of its 
fibers split. I have seen good Italian silk on such bob- 
bins which looked like the worst Bengal and which in 
the upper layers (that were stretched more the 
thicker the bobbin became) had a l)rcaking-length of 
•only fifteen kilometers; gradually the layers improved 
to twenty, twenty-five, thirty, and the innermost layers 
had a breaking length of thirty-five kilometers. 

It would be possible to solve the hard parts of the 
skein by wetting them, and to dry them afterwards in 
a way that they cannot stick together again, but here 
is not the place to describe this procedure. 

I know important throwsters, withal, who keej) 
strictly to the method of dry winding. 

Their Japan trams are justly well renowned, and 
they easily obtain prices which make up for the loss 
by waste. 

My advice is to wind in the dry wav after 
having taught the hands to "rub out" well the hard 
parts of the skein — and to accept only those thrown 
silks that are not soaked in the winding. These are 
easily recognizable, for they show the natural luster, 
while the weighted silk has a dull, greasy aspect. 

Moreover the task of the dyer is easier by receiving 
pure silk instead of a mixture of silk, soap and grease 
of unknown chemical composition, which in the boil- 
ing-ofif sometimes undergoes unforeseen changes. 



184 



SERI VALOR 



In chapter XVI I said that "lousiness" is the 
dyer's fault ; I must add, however that he can be made 
responsible for it only if he has received unweighted, 
dr}dy wound silk. It is his duty to treat the silk with 
all the care and skill of his craft, but he cannot be 
obliged to have it chemically analyzed before and to 
free it from the alien materials with which it was 
covered in the throwing:. 




^^^g 


m^j 


^^^^^^^^^^ 



Chapter XXV 

THE CALCULATION OF GENERAL 
EXPENSES 

'T^iir-: method of calculating the expenses now in 
' -'- general use in almost the whole textile industry 
is wrong, as can be seen from the following example : 

A manufacturer whose sale in the last year w-as a 
million dollars and whose general expenses were 
$100,000, will base his calculation for the following 
year on 10 per cent, of the general expenses. Suppose 
his sales in the last }ear were: 

1-2 million yards of an article at $1.00 per yd. = $500,000, and 
2J^ million yards of an article at .20 per yd. = $500,000, 

in reality his general expenses for the lirst article 
were not ten cents per yard, ])ut less than that, for the 
second not two cents, but more than that. This will 
become evident if we suppose that in the following 
year fashion has changed, so that the manufacturer is 
compelled to abandon the better article altogether and 



186 S E R I V A L O R 

to limit his whole production to the cheaper one. In 
order to gain the general expenses remaining unal- 
tered, he would have to produce 5,000.000 yards of 
the lower article, and it is evident that the same looms 
which produced last year 500,000 yards could not pro- 
duce 2,500,000 this year. 

The error can be avoided by calculating the gen- 
eral expenses in proportion to the weaving wages. 

Suppose that in our case the weaving wages had 
been $50,000, the general exi)enses must be calculated 
at the rate of 200 per cent, of the former. 

It is not sufficient, however, to base this propor- 
tion on a summary statistic, but it is necessary to con- 
template various details. For also the general ex- 
penses must be considered as different for such articles 
which are produced on one loom, in comparison with 
those for the manufacturing of which one weaver suf- 
fices for two looms. General expenses are, moreover, 
higher for fancy articles than for plain ones, higher 
for jac(iuards than for shed-fancies, finally higher 
for orders than for stock goods, and the more so the 
smaller quantity ordered per color and per pattern is. 

It is necessary, therefore, to have these statistics 
made by a good calculator. As an example we give the 
following table which tifteen years ago served well for 
a mill of 400 power looms, with low wages for piece- 
work, but also low selling expenses, the production 
being sold to a few wholesale firms without traveling. 



S E R I V A L O R 187 

General expenses in per cent, of weaving wages: 

Production on 
two looms, one loom. 

Plain articles, on stock leo 

Plain articles, on order 170 115 

Fancies on order ISO 120 

Jacquards on order oqo 1:^5 

Extra : 20 francs = $4 per loom for putting on a 
new pattern or a new binding. Calculations of the cost 
price by the method explained here remain unshaken 
by variations in the grouping of the articles produced 
during the year, and avoid disagreeable surprises in 
the vear's balance. 




188 SERI VALOR 

Chapter XXVI 
CALCULATION OF PARITIES 

BETWEEN LIRE PER KILO, IX MILAN, CASH BASIS, AND 
DOLLARS PER POUND. NEW YORK, SIXTY DAYS. 

BASIS. 

100 Kilos, in Milan, @ Lire 45 Lire 4,500.00 

Conditioning " 3.00 

Packing " 10.00 

Freight to New York " 22.00 

20 days passage, 60 days payment, = SO days, 5 

per cent. p. a " 50.00 

100 Kilos, New York, 60 days Lire 4,585.00 

1 lb. (453.6 gr.). New York, 60 days '• 20.80 

Change : 10 Lire = $2, 1 lb., X. Y. 60 days $4.16 

If, then, the change in New York is $2 for ten 
hre, the parity is to be calculated by multiplying the 
price in lire with 0.0925. The following table shows 
the multiplicators (leaving aside the decimal point) for 
the other changes. 

Change 10 Lire = cents 200 199 198 197 196 195 194 193 

Multiplicator 925 920 915 910 906 901 897 892 

192 191 190 189 188 187 186 185 184 183 182 181 

887 883 878 873 869 864 860 855 850 846 841 837 

Change 10 Lirc = cents 180 179 178 177 176 175 174 173 

Multiplicator 8.32 827 823 828 813 809 804 800 

172 171 170 109 168 167 166 165 164 163 162 161 

795 790 786 781 776 772 767 763 758 753 749 744 



SERIVALOR 189 



C O X C L U S 1 O N 

^T^jus book was written during the great European 
-■■ war. After having begun to write it in Milan, the 
author was compelled to finish it in a Swiss village, 
without the help of his notes, collected during many 
years. But for this impediment its statistical material 
would have been richer. I suppose, however, that the 
reader will have got enough of figures, as it is. and I 
hope they wull not make him lose his courage. If he 
cannot master the sometimes difficult subject right 
aw^ay, a second perusal w'ill make him better acquainted 
with it, and may be he will acknowledge the author's 
endeavor to speak "truth and nothing but truth." 

Perhaps he will also come to the conclusion that 
more can be learned from books than from teachers 
and more by self-thinking than from books. 

Right classification of silk, of course, can be 
taught as little as swimming by a book, but if the 
reader has been freed from many prejudices and 
errors prevailing in our industry, he will certainly not 
regret his trouble, as little as has the author himself, 
who has been studying these matters for more than 
twenty years. 

Adolf Rosexzw i:k;. 
lugaxo-sorkxco. 1 91,'). 




TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Portrait of the Author, Adolf Rosenzweig Frontispiece 

Introduction 5 

Author's Prospectus 11 

Chapter I. — The Size (Le Titre). Rules for Calculating 

Size 18 

Chapter II.— Some Remarks Ahott Qiality in Gen- 

ERAE. What is Quality ? 40 

Chapter III. — Regularity. Diagrams of Degrees Seri- 

valor. Diagram Charts 45 

Chapter I\'. — Fine Threads. Loom Tension. Table of 

Fine Threads 70 

Chapter \'.— The Windixg. Tensile Weakness in 

Winding 75 

Chapter \T. — Flocks. Knobs, Knots and Loops 83 

Chapter VII. — Loops. "Rombaggiati." "Satines" 87 

Chapter VTII. — Cohesion. "Rognose." Double Ends. 

Friction 94 

Chapter IX. — DrcTii.iTY a.M) Elasticity. Ductility De- 
fects. Tensibility 103 

Chapter X. — Tensile Strength. Resistance of Silk. 

Good and Bad P.reaking Lengths 110 



SERIVALOR 191 

Chapter XL— The Resultant. Commercial Value of 

Chops jj^ 

Chapter XII.— The Constancy of the Degrees Seri- 

^ -^'-OK 121 

Chapter XIII. — The Difference Between the Mercan- 
tile AND the Real Value 223 

Chapter XIV.— The Mercantile Value i26 

Chapter XV.— The Real Value 133 

Chapter XVI.— Lousiness 143 

Chapter XVII. — Luster and Cover 146 

Chapter X VIII.— The Touch [][[[ 148 

Chapter XIX.— The Losses by Preparatory Procedures 149 

Chapter XX.— The Diameter of the Silk Thread 155 

Chapter XXL— The Alter.^tion of Size by Throwing. . 161 
Chapter XXIL— The Reeds. Table of Dent Proportions. 

Table of Clear Spaces 171 

Chapter XXIII.-jSo.me Hints About Powkr Weaving. 

New Weaving Rules 176 

Chapter XXIV.— Soaking. Boil-ofF Percentages. Dry 

Winding ^g^ 

Chapter XXV.— The Calculation of General Ex- 
penses ^35 

Chapter XX VI.— Calculation of Parities 135 

Conclusion jog 




